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Panorama  of  Naples  from  the  Romero. 


NAPLES 


THE   CITY   OF    PARTHENOPE 
ant)  its  Cnfcirong 

BY 

CLARA   ERSKINE  CLEMENT 

AUTHOR   OF   "THE   QUEEN   OF  THE  ADRIATIC,"   "HANDBOOK    OF 

LEGENDARY     AND     MYTHOLOGICAL     ART,"     "  LIFE 

OF    CHARLOTTE     CUSHMAN,"  ETC. 


VEDI  NAPOLI   E    POI  MORI 


Illustrated 


BOSTON 
ESTES    AND    LAURIAT 


Copyright,  1894, 
BY  ESTES  AND  LAURIAT. 

All  rights  reserved. 


JOHN  WILSON  AND  SON,  CAMBRIDGE,  U.S.A. 


Hear  then,  oh,  hear  the  sea-maid's  airy  shell; 
Listen,  oh,  listen  /   't  is  the  siren  sings,  — 
The  spirit  of  the  deep,  —  Parthenope,  — 
She  who  did  once  f  the  dreamy  days  of  old 
Sport  on  these  golden  sands  beneath  the  moon, 
Or  poured  the  ravishing  music  of  her  song 
Over  the  silent  waters,  and  bequeathed 
To  all  these  sunny  capes  and  dazzling  shores 
Her  own  immortal  beauty  and  her  name. 

ANNA  JAMESON. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    THE  BEGINNING  OF  A  NATION  AND  A  LANGUAGE  .     .  l 

II.     FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.     1198-1516       .  11 

III.  CHARLES  V.  AND  PHILIP  II.     1516-1598 58 

IV.  PHILIP  III.  AND  PHILIP  IV.     1598-1647 85 

V.     MASANIELLO'S  REBELLION.     1647-1700 108 

VI.     CARLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.     1700-1806      .  136 
VII.     JOSEPH  BONAPARTE,  JOACHIM  MURAT,  FERDINAND  I., 

AND  FRANCIS  I.     1806-1830 164 

VIII.    FERDINAND    II.,    FRANCIS    II.,    GARIBALDI,    VICTOR 

EMANUEL,  AND  HUMBERT  I.     1830-1894     ....  189 

IX.     NEAPOLITAN  LIFE 205 

X.     NEAPOLITAN  LIFE  —  continued 226 

XI.     NEAPOLITAN  ART  AND  LETTERS 244 

XII.    POZZUOLI,  BAI.E,  CUMJS,  PROCIDA,  AND  ISCHIA     .     .  261 

XIII.  HERCULANEUM,   VESUVIUS,   POMPEII,    SORRENTO,  LA 

CAVA,  AMALFI,  SALERNO,  AND  P.ESTUM    ....  282 

XIV.  THE  ISLAND  OF  CAPRI  297 


INDEX 829 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 
PANORAMA  OF  NAPLES  FROM  THE  VOMERO Frontispiece 

INTERIOR  OF  THE  CHURCH  AT  SANTA  CHIARA 25 

THE  ISLAND  OF  NISIDA 34- 

THE  HEIGHTS  OF  SAN  MARTINO  FROM  THE  MOLE 59 

THE  PORTA  CAPUANA 66 

THE  CASTEL  DELL'  Ovo 76 

NEAPOLITAN  COSTUMES 101 

THE  THEATRE  OF  SAN  CARLO 142 

THE  CASTLE  OF  ISCHIA 169 

SANTA  LUCIA 217 

GALLERIA  UMBERTO  1 220 

VIRGIL'S  TOMB 263 

THE  AMPHITHEATRE  AT  POZZUOLI 271 

THE  TEMPLE  OF  VENUS  AND  DIANA  AT  BALE 275 

LOOKING  DOWN  THE  STREET  OF  THE  TOMBS,  POMPEII     ....  282 

THE  HOUSE  OF  PANSA,  POMPEII 285 

PANORAMA  OF  SORRENTO 290 

THE  TEMPLE  OF  NEPTUNE  AT  P^ESTUM 295 

THE  STEPS  AT  CAPRI 321 

THE  BLUE  GROTTO  OF  CAPRI 326 


NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  A   NATION  AND   A  LANGUAGE. 

LONG  centuries  ago,  when  sirens  dwelt  on  islands  and 
naiads  haunted  rivers  and  springs,  when  nymphs 
thronged  in  forest  glades  where  trees  oft  held  imprisoned 
dryads,  when  sibyls  made  their  homes  in  caves  and  grot- 
tos, the  peninsula  of  Naples  was  a  favorite  haunt  of  these 
mysterious  beings ;  and  we  can  but  count  the  Fates  most 
kind  to  Parthenope  when  she  was  cast  upon  a  shore  so 
fitting  for  her  home.  That  she  should  here  have  built 
her  Neapolis  —  New  City  —  and  here  have  been  buried, 
as  Strabo  tells  us,  seems  but  what  any  siren,  ancient  or 
modern,  would  have  done  had  she  the  power. 

Here  were  the  Elysian  and  the  Phlegraan  Fields :  the 
first  — 

"  Clothed  in  the  delicate  atmosphere  of  Spring, 
Sprouting  with  young  vines,  redolent  of  the  fruit 
And  flower  of  orange,  true  Hesperian  gold, 
And  the  wide  whisper  of  the  violet ;  " 

while  in  sad  contrast  the  second  stood  — 

"  Where  Titan  force  still  heaves 
The  uncertain  bases  of  the  vernal  hills ; 
Volcanic  bowls,  smouldering  and  boiling  yet, 
Or  brimmed  with  cool  oblivion  of  the  wave." 

1 


2  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Here,  too,  was  Lake  Avernus,  very  "  gate  of  hell,"  through 
which  Ulysses  passed  to  gloomier  shades  below ;  and  here 
Amsanctus,  then  as  now  exhaling  death.  Of  Avernus, 
Virgil  says, — 

"  Deep  in  the  craggy  gorge  a  cavern  yawned ; 
A  pitchy  lake  and  forests  black  as  night 
Girdled  its  depths  profound.     No  bird  unharmed 
O'er  that  dread  orifice  might  steer  its  flight,  — 
Such  baneful  exhalation  through  the  air 
Keeked  from  its  murky  jaws. 

And  famed  Manduria's  well,  —  as  Pliny  saw  it,  still  it  is  ; 
draw  off  or  pour  within  a  constant  stream,  and  still  the 
water  stands  at  the  same  height.  Through  this  charmed 
land  the  magic  Crathis  flowed  o'er  sands  of  gold,  and  those 
who  bathed  therein  had  ever  after  hair  like  golden  threads 
by  fairies  spun.  Here,  too,  that  other  river  with  its  seven 
streams,  in  which  Orestes  bathed,  and  lost  the  foul  stains 
of  his  mother's  blood ;  and  here  the  fountain  of  Artacia, 
where  Ulysses  met  the  daughter  of  the  Laestrygonian  king. 
Historic  mountains  tower  in  all  this  land,  and  promon- 
tories rise  from  out  its  seas  that  have  been  famed  since 
poets  and  historians  sang  and  wrote.  Horace  tells  of  the 
wondrous  bees  and  honey  of  Mons  Matinus,  and  of  the 
shipwreck  of  Archytas  on  the  shore  below,  and  begs  each 
passer-by  to  help  in  covering  the  unburied  corpse,  — 

"  O  sailor-man,  these  bones,  this  skull  to  hide, 
Grudge  not  a  handful  of  the  drifting  sand ; 
So  may  the  East-wind  on  Venusia  blow, 
And  spare  thee  on  the  waters  far  away. 
Just  guerdon  for  thy  care  may  Jove  bestow, 
And  Neptune,  guardian  of  Tarentum's  bay. 
But  if  thou  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  my  prayer, 
Surely  thy  children's  fortune  shall  be  wrecked, 
And  thou,  for  lack  of  charity,  shalt  bear 
The  just  requital  of  a  like  neglect. 
No  expiation  shall  undo  the  wrong, 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  A  NATION  AND  A  LANGUAGE.        8 

No  lustral  waters  purify  thy  heart ; 

The  boon  I  ask  will  not  delay  thee  long,  — 

Three  handfuls  of  gray  dust,  and  then  depart." 

To  the  height  of  Gaeta,  Virgil  has  given  undying  interest, 
—  the  burial-place  of  Caieta,  the  unf orgotten  nurse  of  brave 
^Eneas;  and  to  that  other  promontory,  world  renowned, 
which  bears  his  pilot's  name,  —  as  the  Cumsean  Sibyl  prom- 
ised that  eternally  it  should,  —  the  headland  of  Palinurus. 
Far  to  the  southeast,  in  old  Lucania,  the  mountains  of  La 
Sila  furnish  masts  and  timber  to  shipbuilders  now,  as  in 
the  ancient  days  to  the  Athenians.  There  still  lie  per- 
petual snows,  and,  lower  down,  the  same  impenetrable  for- 
ests, rich  pastoral  plains,  and  beautiful  ravines  that  Strabo 
describes  and  Virgil  clothes  in  graceful  imagery. 

Volcanoes  too  are  there  :  that  Vesevus  that  still  lives,  — 
which  Goethe  called  a  peak  of  hell  rising  from  Paradise,  — 
and  others  that  have  died,  hold  their  place  in  the  story  of 
this  land  ;  a  place  of  "  horrors  on  horrors  multiplied,"  such 
as  it  would  seem  could  only  be  wrought  by  furious,  im- 
prisoned giants. 

Here  rose  a  chain  of  temples  sacred  to  the  gods  of 
Greece,  many  of  which  even  now  delight  us,  ruined  as  they 
are.  Still  towers  there,  in  its  majestic  loneliness,  one 
column  of  that  fane,  founded  by  Hercules,  where  Juno 
Lacinia  was  worshipped.  So  sacred  was  it  held  that 
Pyrrhus  and  Hannibal  alike  feared  to  profane  its  shrines, 
rich  as  they  were ;  and  upon  its  walls  the  great  Cartha- 
ginian inscribed  his  victories  in  Greek  and  Punic  charac- 
ters. Even  the  immortal  Zeuxis  contributed  to  its  adorning, 
and  near  by,  at  Croton,  —  famous  alike  for  its  beautiful 
women  and  its  wrestlers  in  the  Olympic  games,  —  he  sought 
a  model  for  his  picture  of  the  divine  Helen.  The  temple 
of  Proserpine  stood  in  that  grove  now  known  as  La  Selva 
di  Agatocle,  where  it  is  said  that  the  dread  goddess 
gathered  flowers  and  wove  them  into  garlands.  The  sites 


4  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

of  numberless  shrines  are  known,  and  each  contributes  its 
peculiar  part  to  the  surpassing  interest  of  this  peninsula. 

Along  its  coasts  are  islands  and  rocks  whose  fame  is  as 
old  as  the  written  words  of  classic  song,  —  the  Arimos 
of  Homer  and  Inariine  of  Virgil,  where  Typhceus  makes 
his  bed  beneath  Epopeus ;  Prochyta,  "  broken  off "  from 
Arimos  by  the  mighty  struggles  of  the  father  of  bad  winds ; 
and  Capreae,  or  Cephorim,  with  all  its  storied  heights  and 
wondrous  grottos,  not  far  from  the  dreaded  island  of  the 
sirens.  Circd  had  warned  Ulysses  of  his  danger ;  and 
yet,  so  sweetly  did  they  sing,  that  had  he  not  been  fast 
bound  he  would  have  made  a  willing  victim  to  their  wiles. 

Yet  still  farther  south  are  found  those  rocky  straits  of 
which  Ulysses  was  again  forewarned  :  — 

"  No  mariner  can  boast 
That  he  has  passed  by  Scylla  with  a  crew 
Unharmed ;  she  snatches  from  the  deck,  and  bears 
Away  in  each  grim  mouth,  a  living  man. 

Another  rock,  Ulysses,  thou  wilt  see, 
Of  lower  height,  so  near  her  that  a  spear, 
Cast  by  the  hand,  might  reach  it.     On  it  grows 
A  huge  wild  fig-tree  with  luxuriant  leaves. 
Below,  Charybdis,  of  immortal  birth, 
Draws  the  dark  water  down  ;  for  thrice  a  day 
She  gives  it  forth,  and  thrice  with  fearful  whirl 
She  draws  it  in.     Oh,  be  it  not  thy  lot 
To  come  while  the  dark  water  rushes  down ! 
Even  Neptune  could  not  then  deliver  thee. 
Then  turn  thy  course  with  speed  toward  Scylla's  rock, 
And  pass  that  way ;  't  were  better  far  that  six 
Should  perish  from  the  ship  than  all  be  lost." 

Thus,  from  the  northernmost  point  to  Capo  Spartivento, 
from  Capo  di  Leuca  to  Terracina,  one  re-reads  his  classics 
and  his  history  in  what  he  sees  around  him.  No  words 
written  now  could  better  portray  the  natural  features  of 
this  land  than  do  those  of  Homer,  Strabo,  Horace,  and 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  A  NATION  AND  A  LANGUAGE.        5 

Virgil;  while  all  around  it  flow  the  seas  made  so  fami- 
liar to  us  in  our  youth,  —  those  waters  which  Palinurus 
watched ;  and  when  he  saw  them  calm,  the  heavens  serene, 
and  the  stars  bright  with  gold,  his  clear  signal  called  his 
friends  to  strike  their  tents  and  "  fly  with  winged  sails." 

"  And  '  Italy  '  rings  first 
Achates'  voice,  and  Italy  with  shouts 
Of  joy  my  comrades  greet.    My  father  then 
Wreathes  a  great  cup,  and  fills  it  up  with  wine, 
And,  standing  in  the  stern,  invokes  the  gods  : 

'  Ye  potent  deities  of  sea  and  land, 
And  of  the  storms,  grant  us  a  passage  safe, 
And  favoring  breezes.'     Soon  the  wished-for  winds 
Freshen,  and  wider  grows  the  harbor  now ; 
Minerva's  temple  on  a  height  appears  ; 
We  furl  the  sails,  and  turn  our  prows  to  land." 

It  is  said  that  over  the  Yergillus  Hannibal  erected  a 
bridge  of  human  bodies,  and  the  plain  near  by  is  still  called 
the  Pezzo  di  Sangue ;  and  Belisarius,  unable  to  conquer 
Naples  with  its  walls  which  had  withstood  Pyrrhus,  Hanni- 
bal, and  Spartacus,  turned  aside  the  waters  of  the  aque- 
duct, and,  entering  by  it,  brought  upon  the  city  its  first 
calamity.  In  this  Neapolitan  territory  the  Roman  army, 
humbled  by  the  Samnites,  passed  the  Caudine  Forks ;  and 
innumerable  heroic  achievements  have  here  had  place, 
which  are  recounted  to  the  wonder  and  delight  of  each 
new  generation  as  they  learn  of  ancient  days  when  gods 
and  men  as  giants  walked  the  earth. 

Besides  the  tales  of  sibyls  and  sirens  and  "  spirits  from 
the  vasty  deep,"  both  good  and  evil,  with  which  these 
coasts  abound,  we  find  that  Hercules  at  Boaulia  built  the 
stables  for  the  oxen  of  Geryon,  and  that  the  bow  and  ar- 
rows of  this  god  of  strength  were  suspended  in  the  temple 
of  Apollo  Alaeus,  built  by  Philoctetes  on  the  Punta  dell' 
Alice.  But  of  all  these  marvellous  tales  of  fact  and  fancy 


6  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

none  are  more  unusual  and  memorable  than  that  of  the 
death  and  burial  of  Alaric,  King  of  the  Goths,  suddenly 
arrested  in  his  triumphant  course  when  seeking  further 
conquests.  Fearing  that  his  grave  might  be  violated,  his 
followers  determined  to  render  that  impossible,  and  afforded 
him  a  burial  such  as  no  other  hero  is  known  to  have  had. 
Gibbon  says :  — 

"  The  ferocious  character  of  the  Barbarians  was  displayed 
in  the  funeral  of  a  hero  whose  valor  and  fortune  they  cele- 
brated with  mournful  applause.  By  the  labor  of  a  captive 
multitude,  they  forcibly  diverted  the  course  of  the  Busentinus. 
The  royal  sepulchre,  adorned  with  the  splendid  spoils  and 
trophies  of  Rome,  was  constructed  in  the  vacant  bed ;  the 
waters  were  then  restored  to  their  natural  channel,  and  the 
secret  spot  where  the  remains  of  Alaric  had  been  deposited  was 
forever  concealed  by  the  inhuman  massacre  of  the  prisoners 
who  had  been  employed  to  execute  the  work." 

Turn  ye  the  waters  from  their  course, 
Bid  Nature  yield  to  human  force, 
And  hollow  in  the  torrent's  bed 
A  chamber  for  the  mighty  dead. 
The  work  is  done,  —  the  captive's  hand 
Hath  well  obeyed  his  lord's  command. 
Within  that  royal  tomb  are  cast 
The  richest  trophies  of  the  past, 
The  wealth  of  many  a  stately  dome, 
The  gold  and  gems  of  plundered  Rome ; 
And  when  the  midnight  stars  are  beaming, 
And  ocean  waves  in  stillness  gleaming, 
Stern  in  their  grief,  his  warriors  bear 
The  Chastener  of  the  Nations  there, 
To  rest  at  length  from  victory's  toil, 
Alone,  with  all  an  Empire's  spoil  1 

Then  the  freed  current's  rushing  wave 
Rolls  o'er  the  secret  of  the  grave  ; 
Then  streams  the  martyred  captives'  blood 
To  crimson  that  sepulchral  flood, 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  A  NATION  AND  A  LANGUAGE.        7 

Whose  conscious  tide  alone  shall  keep 
The  mystery  in  its  bosom  deep. 
Time  hath  passed  on  since  then,  and  swept 
From  earth  the  urns  where  heroes  slept ; 
Temples  of  gods  and  domes  of  kings 
Are  mouldering  with  forgotten  things  ; 
Yet  shall  not  ages  e'er  molest 
The  viewless  home  of  Alaric's  rest : 
Still  rolls,  like  them,  the  unfailing  river, 
The  guardian  of  his  dust  forever. 

Felicia  Hemans. 

It  is  difficult  to  put  aside  the  fascinating  story  of  the 
ancient  days,  and  turn  our  attention  to  the  modern  life  of 
this  peninsula.  It  would  require  volumes  to  describe  in 
detail  the  marvellous  events  of  which  history  and  tradition 
make  it  the  actual  scene ;  and  many  of  them  are  character- 
ized by  such  heroic  romance  as  has  rarely  been  excelled  in 
any  land.  We1  are  tempted  to  echo  the  words  of  Dr.  John- 
son:  "  The  great  object  of  all  travelling  is  to  see  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean,  on  which  were  the  four  great  em- 
pires of  the  world,  the  Assyrian,  the  Persian,  the  Grecian, 
and  the  Roman." 

It  is  not  for  us  to  attempt  to  fix  the  dates  at  which  colo- 
nies of  various  ancient  races  —  nor,  indeed,  those  at  which 
the  Latin  peoples  —  came  to  Southern  Italy.  It  is  believed 
that  Cumse  was  settled  by  Phoenicians  1400  B.  c.,  and  that 
it  was  not  a  new  city  three  centuries  later  is  a  well-estab- 
lished fact.  Sybaris  was  founded  720  B.  c.,  and  it  is  cer- 
tain that  the  Marsi,  Samnites,  Brutii,  Lucanians,  Calabri, 
Greeks,  and  others  settled  here  at  remote  periods ;  while 
later,  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Italian  tribes  were 
mingled  with  those  of  Greeks,  Lombards,  Normans,  Sara- 
cens, Provengals,  and  Spaniards. 

This  mixture  of  races  has  produced  a  people  in  many 
respects  remarkable ;  and  men  learned  in  such  matters 
claim  that  even  now,  especially  in  the  more  isolated  dis- 


8  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

tricts,  habits  and  customs  exist  which  can  be  traced  to 
these  remote  ancestors.  The  Marsi  afford  an  example  of 
the  truth  of  this.  The  banks  of  Lake  Fucinus,1  near  which 
they  dwelt,  abounded  with  asps  and  vipers,  and  the  water 
with  snakes,  which  the  Marsi  were  skilled  in  charming,  — 
as  Virgil  describes  (^Eneid,  VII.) ,  —  and  still  in  various 
parts  of  Southern  Italy  their  descendants  are  seen  support- 
ing themselves  on  what  they  gain  as  snake-charmers. 

In  the  third  century  B.  c.  the  Romans  were  masters  of 
the  peninsula ;  after  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire,  Goths, 
Lombards,  and  Romans  of  the  Eastern  Empire  were  power- 
ful in  turn,  until,  in  A.  D.  1042,  the  Normans  became  sole 
masters  of  the  land.  It  cannot  be  said,  however,  that  they 
established  a  government  until  Robert  Guiscard,  in  a 
quarter  of  a  century  (1060-1085),  united  the  detached 
sovereignties  within  the  Neapolitan  territory,  and  trans- 
mitted to  his  successor  a  kingdom  sufficiently  organized  to 
be  maintained  and  strengthened,  until,  in  1127,  under  the 
nephew  of  Robert  Guiscard, —  Roger  II.,  the  great  Count 
of  Sicily,  —  a  monarchy  was  founded  which  united  Sicily 
and  the  Neapolitan  territory,  and  remained  under  the  rule 
of  the  Normans  until  it  passed  to  the  House  of  Hohen- 
staufen  in  1194. 

In  spite  of  the  incursions  of  Romans,  Ostrogoths,  and 
Lombards,  and  the  conquests  of  Normans  and  Suabians, 
the  customs  of  the  ancestors  of  this  people,  such  as  that  to 
which  we  have  referred,  and  notably  the  ancient  language, 
obstinately  survived.  After  the  earlier  Samnite  and  Oscan 
tongues  were  lost,  Greek  retained  its  hold,  and  was  the  lan- 
guage of  the  people  among  themselves  long  after  they  had 
found  it  needful  to  make  Latin  their  mercantile  tongue ; 

1  Drained  by  Prince  Torlonia,  who  opened  the  tunnel  on  which  thirty  thou- 
sand men  had  worked  eleven  years  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Claudius. 
The  modern  work  was  done  in  thirteen  years,  and  finished  in  1875.  The  re- 
claimed land,  thirty-six  thousand  acres,  is  now  a  model  farm,  colonized  hy 
families  from  the  Torlonia  estates. 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  A  NATION  AND  A  LANGUAGE.         9 

from  this  custom  arose  the  Roman  term  for  the  Neapoli- 
tans, Bilingues.  Even  now  the  traveller  and  the  student 
who  are  interested  in  such  matters  will  find  that  Renan 
spoke  truly,  when  he  said,  "  If  we  wish  to  see  the  life  of 
Greece  prolonging  itself  to  our  own  days,  it  is  to  Sicily  and 
to  the  Bay  of  Naples  that  we  must  go." 

Not  until  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  during 
the  reign  of  Frederick  II.,  who  founded  the  University  of 
Naples,  did  the  modern  Italian  language  begin  to  be  formed. 
The  first  dawn  of  Italian  literature  appeared  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Naples  among  its  Greek  colonies ;  and  a  long  and 
noble  line  of  writers,  who  greatly  enriched  the  learning 
of  the  world,  were  born  here.  Zaleucus  declares  himself 
a  native  of  Locri ;  Pythagoras  of  Croton,  where  he  estab- 
lished his  school  of  philosophy ;  Archytas  was  of  Tarentum, 
and  Alexis  of  Sibarum.  Of  later  authors,  Ennius,  Cicero, 
Sallust,  Vitruvius,  Ovid,  Horace,  and  Cassiodorus,  as  well 
as  men  famed  for  their  science  and  learning,  first  saw  the 
light  beneath  the  skies  of  the  Neapolitan  peninsula. 

Thus,  almost  twenty-five  hundred  years  later  than  the 
earliest  dates  we  have  mentioned,  more  than  ten  centuries 
after  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  nearly  a  thousand  years 
after  Saint  Paul  had  brought  the  knowledge  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion  to  these  shores ;  after  millions  of  human 
beings  had  here  acted  their  parts  for  good  or  evil  in  the 
drama  of  the  universe,  and  various  Southern  races  had 
followed  their  customs  in  life  and  death ;  after  many  his- 
toric scenes  in  barbarous  and  deadly  wars,  and  numberless 
celebrations  of  the  most  exciting  games  and  exquisite  festi- 
vals of  peace,  —  the  Normans  came,  full  of  energy,  to  found 
a  kingdom,  to  be  shortly  superseded  by  Teutons,  who  not 
only  strengthened  the  empire,  but  gave  a  beautiful  common 
language  to  these  descendants  of  many  nations,  and  estab- 
lished the  institutions  of  civilization  in  their  midst. 

It  is  a  curious  and  interesting  fact  that  while  there  are 


10  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIKONS. 

remarkable  remains  of  Cyclopean  and  Pelasgic  architec- 
ture in  the  Neapolitan  territory,  while  existing  ruins  show 
the  magnificence  of  the  ancient  temples  erected  here, 
while  mural  painting  and  mosaic  and  bronze  work  reached 
a  rare  perfection  under  Byzantine  influence,  while  during 
the  centuries  immediately  preceding  and  following  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era  many  famous  authors  were 
born  in  the  cities  of  this  peninsula,  yet,  since  those  days, 
but  a  slight  impression  has  been  made  oil  the  art  and 
literature  of  the  world  by  native  Southern  Italians,  while 
in  more  northern  Italy  art  has  reached  the  most  glorious 
heights  it  has  attained  since  the  time  of  Pericles,  and  lit- 
erature has  been  enriched  and  ennobled  by  famous  scholars 
and  immortal  poets. 

Having  thus  traced  the  merest  outline  of  the  origin  of 
the  Neapolitans  and  of  the  first  steps  in  the  evolution 
of  their  nation  and  language,  we  turn  to  the  more  prosaic 
time  when  their  history  is  no  longer  veiled  by  myths  and 
traditions,  —  a  time  when  sirens,  sibyls,  and  fairy  folk  of 
all  degrees  found  this  paradise  of  land  and  sky  and  sea 
no  longer  to  their  taste,  and  fled,  we  know  not  whither, 
leaving  the  country  of  Parthenope  to  a  far  less  fascinating 
and  more  tangible  people. 


CHAPTER  II. 

FROM   FREDERICK   II.   TO   CHARLES  V. 
1198-1516. 

T^REDERIGK  II.,  sometimes  called  "The  Wonder  of  the 
-L  World,"  is  an  important  figure  in  mediaeval  history. 
He  was  the  grandson  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and  inherited 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sicily  through  his  mother  Con- 
stance, daughter  of  Roger  II.  of  the  Norman  dynasty.  His 
father,  Henry  VI.,  was  in  his  full  career  of  vice  and  op- 
pression when  Frederick  was  born  in  Sicily,  in  1194,  and 
died  when  the  child  was  but  three  years  old ;  a  year  later 
Constance  also  died,  and  the  infant  king  was  left  to  the 
guardianship  of  the  Pope. 

From  his  very  cradle  circumstances  combined  to  fix 
attention  upon  him.  On  account  of  his  mother's  age,  his 
birth  was  likened  to  those  of  Isaac,  Samuel,  and  John  the 
Baptist ;  he  was  a  sovereign  from  his  infancy,  heir  to  the 
vast  power  and  possessions  of  the  Norman  kings  and 
the  Suabian  emperors.  Married  when  fifteen  years  old, 
he  was  the  father  of  a  future  emperor  at  eighteen,  and 
after  many  experiences  freighted  with  great  importance 
to  all  Christendom,  but  not  appertaining  strictly  to  our 
present  subject,  he  was  crowned  Emperor  of  the  Romans 
by  Pope  Honorius.  This  was  one  of  the  few  occasions 
when  such  a  coronation  was  accomplished  peacefully,  and 
there  were  many  reasons  why  it  was  not  to  be  expected  in 
this  case ;  but  it  may  be  accounted  for  on  the  supposition 
that  although  he  was  the  Emperor  of  the  Germans,  having 
been  born  within  the  borders  of  Italy,  of  a  Sicilian  mother, 


12  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

he  was  expected  to  make  the  southern  portion  of  his  realm 
first  in  his  care  and  affection. 

During  the  childhood  of  Frederick,  Sicily  was  the  scene 
of  fierce  contentions  between  the  German  and  Saracen 
troops  and  the  soldiers  sent  to  quiet  them  by  Pope  Inno- 
cent III. ;  and  not  until  Frederick  himself  came  into  full 
power  was  a  wiser  policy  inaugurated.  He  transplanted 
the  Saracens  to  the  city  of  Lucera  in  Apulia,  and  to  Nocera 
in  Campania,  where  they  became  his  most  trusty  soldiers  ; 
they  were  loyal  to  him,  and  could  not  be  influenced  by  the 
threats  or  the  promised  rewards  of  pope  or  priest.  In 
Sicily  Frederick  established  a  legal  despotism,  and  sub- 
dued both  Normans  and  Infidels,  the  two  turbulent  and 
rebellious  classes. 

His  life  was  passed  amid  contentions  and  quarrels  with 
different  Popes,  and  he  was  accused  of  being  a  traitor  to 
the  Church  and  to  his  people.  But  these  matters  had  little 
or  no  effect  upon  his  reign  in  Naples  and  Sicily,  where  he 
must  have  found  more  abundant  recompense  for  his  cares 
and  anxieties,  and  greater  personal  happiness  in  the  early 
years  of  his  sovereignty,  than  elsewhere  in  any  portion  of 
his  life.  He  not  only  founded  the  University  of  Naples 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Italian  language,  but  he 
interested  himself  in  the  universities  of  Bologna  and 
Salerno  as  well ;  he  encouraged  native  literature  by  his 
own  writing  of  Italian  poetry,  and  generously  devoted  him- 
self to  the  intellectual  upbuilding  of  the  kingdom  of  his 
birth. 

The  old  English  historian,  Matthew  Paris,  calls  him  "  the 
most  remarkable  man  of  a  remarkable  age ; "  and  Freeman 
says :  — 

u  We  do  not  say  the  greatest,  still  less  the  best,  man  of  his 
time,  but,  as  Matthew  Paris  calls  him,  the  most  wonderful 
man ;  the  man,  in  short,  who  was  in  all  things  the  most  unlike 
to  all  the  other  men  who  were  about  him.  It  is  probable  that 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.  13 

there  never  lived  a  human  being  endowed  with  greater  natural 
gifts,  or  whose  natural  gifts  were,  according  to  the  means  af- 
forded him  by  his  age,  more  sedulously  cultivated,  than  the  last 
Emperor  of  the  House  of  Suabia.  There  seems  to  be  no  aspect 
of  human  nature  that  was  not  developed  to  the  highest  degree 
in  his  person.  In  versatility  of  gifts,  in  what  we  may  call 
many-sidedness  of  character,  he  appears  as  a  sort  of  mediaeval 
Alkibiades,  while  he  was  far  removed  from  Alkibiades'  utter 
lack  of  principle  or  steadiness  of  any  kind.  Warrior,  states- 
man, lawgiver,  scholar,  there  was  nothing  in  the  compass  of 
the  political  or  intellectual  world  of  his  age  which  he  failed  to 
grasp.  ...  Of  all  men,  Frederick  II.  might  have  been  expected 
to  be  the  founder  of  something,  the  beginner  of  some  new  era, 
political  or  intellectual.  .  .  .  But  the  most  gifted  of  the  sons 
of  men  has  left  behind  him  no  such  memory.  .  .  .  Frederick, 
in  fact,  founded  nothing,  and  he  sowed  the  seeds  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  many  things.  ...  In  fact,  in  whatever  aspect  we  look 
at  Frederick  II.  we  find  him,  not  the  first,  but  the  last,  of  every 
series  to  which  he  belongs.  .  .  .  He  was  the  last  prince  in 
whose  style  the  Imperial  titles  do  not  seem  a  mockery ;  he 
was  the  last  under  whose  rule  the  three  Imperial  kingdoms 
retained  any  practical  connection  with  one  another  and  with 
the  ancient  capital  of  all.  Frederick,  who  sent  his  trophies  to 
Rome  to  be  guarded  by  his  own  subjects  in  his  own  city,  was 
a  Roman  Caesar  in  a  sense  in  which  no  other  Emperor  was  after 
him.  And  he  was  not  only  the  last  Emperor  of  the  whole 
Empire ;  he  might  also  be  called  the  last  King  of  its  several 
Kingdoms.  After  his  time  Burgundy  vanishes  as  a  kingdom ; 
.  .  .  Italy,  too,  after  Frederick,  vanishes  as  a  kingdom ; 
any  later  exercise  of  the  royal  authority  in  Italy  was  some- 
thing which  came  and  went  wholly  by  fits  and  starts.  .  .  . 
Germany  did  not  utterly  vanish,  or  utterly  split  in  pieces,  like 
the  sister  kingdoms ;  but  after  Frederick  came  the  Great 
Interregnum,  and  after  the  Great  Interregnum  the  royal  power 
in  Germany  never  was  what  it  had  been  before.  In  his  heredi- 
tary Kingdom  of  Sicily  he  was  not  absolutely  the  last  of  his 
dynasty,  for  his  son  Manfred  ruled  prosperously  and  gloriously 


14  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

for  some  years  after  his  death.  But  it  is  none  the  less  clear 
that  from  Frederick's  time  the  Sicilian  Kingdom  was  doomed  ; 
it  was  marked  out  to  be,  what  it  has  been  ever  since,  divided, 
reunited,  divided  again,  tossed  to  and  fro  between  one  foreign 
sovereign  and  another.  Still  more  conspicuously  than  all  was 
Frederick  the  last  Christian  King  of  Jerusalem,  the  last  bap- 
tized man  who  really  ruled  the  Holy  Land  or  wore  a  crown  in 
the  Holy  City.  And  yet,  strangely  enough,  it  was  at  Jeru- 
salem, if  anywhere,  that  Frederick  might  claim  in  some  meas- 
ure the  honors  of  a  founder.  If  he  was  the  last  more  than 
nominal  King  of  Jerusalem,  he  was  also,  after  a  considerable 
interval,  the  first ;  he  recovered  the  kingdom  by  his  own 
address,  and,  if  he  lost  it,  its  loss  was,  of  all  the  misfortunes 
of  his  reign,  that  which  could  be  with  the  least  justice  at- 
tributed to  him  as  a  fault.  In  the  world  of  elegant  letters 
Frederick  has  some  claim  to  be  looked  on  as  the  founder  of 
that  modern  Italian  language  and  literature  which  first  assumed 
a  distinctive  shape  at  his  Sicilian  court.  .  .  .  It  is  a  significant 
fact  that  one  who  in  mere  genius,  in  mere  accomplishments, 
was  surely  the  greatest  prince  who  ever  wore  a  crown,  a  prince 
who  held  the  greatest  place  on  earth,  and  who  was  concerned 
during  a  long  reign  in  some  of  the  greatest  transactions  of  one 
of  the  greatest  ages,  seems  never,  even  from  his  own  flatterers, 
to  have  received  that  title  of  Great  which  has  been  so  lavishly 
bestowed  on  far  smaller  men.  The  world  instinctively  felt 
that  Frederick,  by  nature  the  more  than  peer  of  Alexander, 
of  Constantine,  and  of  Charles,  had  left  behind  him  no  such 
creation  as  they  left,  and  had  not  influenced  the  world  as  they 
influenced  it.  He  was  stupor  mundi  et  immutator  mirabilis^ 
but  the  name  of  Fridericus  Magnus  was  kept  in  store  for  a 
prince  of  quite  another  age  and  house,  who,  whatever  else  we 
say  of  him,  at  least  showed  that  he  had  learned  the  art  of 
Themistokles,  and  knew  how  to  change  a  small  state  into  a 
great  one." 

Since  many  of  the  most  important  events  in  the  life  of 
Frederick  II.,  and  especially  the  most  interesting  question 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.   TO   CHARLES  V.  15 

of  his  religious  beliefs,  have  no  bearing  upon  the  story  of 
Naples,  we  can  here  give  but  this  meagre  hint  of  the  rare 
attractions  of  a  full  record  of  his  remarkable  life. 

This  great  Emperor  died  in  1250,  and  was  buried  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Palermo,  where  his  wife,  Constance  of  Aragon, 
also  reposes.  In  1783,  more  than  five  centuries  after  his 
burial,  the  sarcophagus  of  Frederick  was  opened,  and  his 
remains  found  in  a  good  state  of  preservation. 

Frederick  II.  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Conrad,  whose 
reign  of  four  years  was  a  period  of  violence.  This  king 
devoted  himself  to  contending  with  William  of  Holland 
for  the  imperial  crown,  and  made  his  illegitimate  brother, 
Manfred,  his  regent  in  Italy ;  although  hated  by  Conrad, 
Manfred  bravely  and  faithfully  defended  his  brother's  rights 
against  Pope  Innocent  IV.  At  Conrad's  death,  his  infant 
son,  Conradin,  became  king,  and  Manfred  continued  to 
govern  in  his  name,  and  in  1258,  on  a  rumor  of  the  young 
king's  death,  was  himself  made  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily, 
and  crowned  at  Palermo  in  August  of  that  year. 

Manfred  made  an  alliance  with  the  Ghibellines  which 
largely  increased  his  power,  but  he  was  continually  under 
the  displeasure  of  the  Popes,  and  led  a  stormy  and  turbulent 
life.  Early  in  his  reign  he  was  forced  to  fly  from  the 
curses  of  the  Pontiff  to  the  protection  of  the  Saracens 
whom  his  father  had  placed  at  Lucera.  His  journey  was 
full  of  danger  ;  leaving  Venosa  at  midnight,  with  but  few 
attendants,  —  one  of  whom,  Niccolo  di  Giansilla,  wrote  an 
account  of  the  adventure,  —  he  encountered  a  frightful 
storm,  and  would  have  been  lost  but  for  a  chance  meeting 
with  some  huntsmen  of  his  father's,  who  guided  him  to  a 
deserted  hunting-lodge  which  had  belonged  to  the  late 
Emperor.  Manfred  was  here  securely  hidden  from  his 
pursuers,  and  gained  some  hours  of  repose  while  his  gar- 
ments were  dried  before  what  he  termed  "  a  royal  fire." 

Next   morning  the   huntsmen   conducted    him    to    the 


16  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

castle  of  Lucera,  and  one  of  them,  speaking  in  Arabic, 
announced  to  the  Saracens  that  the  son  of  their  Emperor 
came  to  them  for  protection.  These  Infidels  were  enthu- 
siastic in  their  loyalty  to  Manfred ;  but  the  keeper  of  the 
fortress,  who  held  the  keys,  was  his  enemy,  and  refused 
him  admission.  At  this  point  a  Saracen  directed  Manfred's 
attention  to  a  gutter  made  for  the  passage  of  rain-water 
beneath  the  gate.  Manfred  threw  himself  from  his  horse 
and  had  entered  the  ditch,  when  the  garrison,  enraged  at 
seeing  their  prince  thus  humiliated,  rushed  to  the  gates 
and  burst  them  open  ;  and  .Manfred,  remounting  his  horse, 
was  led  triumphantly  into  the  city,  where  he  was  received 
with  demonstrations  of  respect  and  affection,  as  the  son  of 
their  beloved  Emperor. 

In  1260  Manfred  had  successfully  invaded  the  Papal 
States,  after  being  excommunicated  by  Urban  IV.,  and 
had  conquered  all  Tuscany.  He  now  found  time  to  devote 
himself  to  the  improvement  of  his  kingdom,  as  his  father 
had  done ;  and,  like  the  great  Frederick,  Manfred  knew  how 
to  gain  the  affection  of  his  people.  He  commenced  the 
construction  of  the  port  of  Salerno,  and  founded  the  beau- 
tiful city  of  Manfredonia,  to  which  he  gave  the  celebrated 
bell,  —  the  largest  in  Italy,  —  the  tone  of  which  surpassed 
all  others  in  its  rich  sweetness.  He  established  schools 
in  the  principal  cities  of  his  kingdom;  and  at  his  splendid 
court,  of  which  he  was  the  brilliant  centre,  scholars  and 
poets  were  made  welcome. 

But  the  battle  of  Benevento,  in  1266,  where  Manfred 
was  defeated  by  Charles  I.  of  Anjou,  ended  his  life,  and 
the  sovereignty  of  his  house  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 
Before  the  battle  Manfred  sent  ambassadors  to  treat  with 
Charles,  who  dismissed  them  with  this  message :  "  Tell  the 
Sultan  of  Nocera  that  I  will  send  him  to  hell,  or  he  must 
place  me  in  paradise."  There  were  traitors  among  the 
nobles  surrounding  Manfred ;  and  when  he  saw  that  he 


FKOM  FREDERICK  II.  TO   CHARLES  V.  17 

was  losing  the  battle,  he  resolved  to  die  in  the  midst  of 
his  friends  rather  than  survive  the  overthrow  of  his  king- 
dom, which,  in  the  short  period  of  sixteen  years,  he  had 
defended  against  four  Popes. 

As  he  put  on  his  helmet,  the  silver  eagle  which  sur- 
mounted it  fell  on  his  saddle.  "  This,"  he  exclaimed,  "  is 
a  sign  from  God.  I  fastened  it  there  myself,  and  its  fall 
is  no  accident."  He  spurred  his  horse  into  the  thick  of 
the  fight,  and,  having  no  distinguishing  badge,  was  slain  as 
a  common  soldier,  and  his  body  was  not  found  for  several 
days.  At  length  some  attendants  recognized  it,  and  placed 
it  on  an  ass  which  they  led  before  the  victorious  Charles, 
who  assembled  his  noble  prisoners  in  order  to  make  its 
identity  certain.  The  aged  count,  Giordano  Lancia,  threw 
himself  on  the  corpse  and  covered  it  with  kisses,  crying, 
"  Alas,  alas,  my  lord,  my  lord  good  and  wise  !  Who  has 
thus  cruelly  taken  thy  life  ? "  The  French  soldiers  were 
so  moved  that  they  begged  Charles  to  bury  Manfred  honor- 
ably ;  but  he  refused  their  request  because  the  dead  king 
was  under  the  sentence  of  excommunication,  and  his  body 
was  thrown  into  a  pit  at  the  foot  of  the  bridge  of  Bene- 
vento.  Every  French  soldier  placed  a  stone  above  it,  as  a 
mark  of  respect  to  their  fallen  enemy ;  and  this  pile  was 
afterwards  called  the  "Rock  of  Roses."  But  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Cosenza,  with  the  authority  of  Clement  IV.,  disin- 
terred the  body  and  scattered  it  to  the  winds  of  the  Abruzzi. 

Manfred  was  a  man  of  great  personal  courage  and 
magnanimity  of  character.  He  was  also  very  attractive. 
Dante  described  him  as  blond  and  handsome,  although  one 
of  his  eyes  had  been  injured  by  a  wound.  His  favorite  color 
in  dress  was  green.  He  was  of  gentle  mien,  and  in  times 
of  peace  found  his  happiness  in  the  society  of  troubadours 
and  poets  ;  indeed,  his  fame  as  a  soldier  is  equalled  by  that 
which  he  gained  as  the  patron  of  Italian  poetry. 

His  widow  Sibylla  —  the  daughter  of  Michael  Comnenus 


18  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

of  Epirus  —  and  his  children  took  refuge  in  the  castle  of 
Lucera,  but  were  imprisoned  by  Charles  at  Castel  del 
Monte,  the  favorite  hunting-seat  of  Frederick,  which  is  still 
an  imposing  edifice,  and  is  maintained  by  the  government. 
These  royal  prisoners  were  afterwards  removed  to  the 
castle  of  Nocera,  where  Sibylla  and  her  son  Manfredino 
died.  Manfred's  daughter  Beatrice  was  one  of  the  first 
prisoners  in  the  Castello  di  San  Salvatore  am  Mare,  —  now 
Castellammare,  —  a  fortress  erected  by  her  grandfather, 
Frederick  II.  After  a  long  imprisonment  she  was  released 
in  1284  by  the  great  Admiral  of  Aragon,  of  which  king- 
dom her  sister  Constance  was  queen.  This  release  occurred 
just  after  the  Admiral,  Roger  de  Loria,  had  fulfilled  the 
requirements  of  poetic  justice  by  capturing  the  eldest  son 
of  Charles  I.  of  Anjou,  who  had  so  cruelly  oppressed  the 
family  of  his  fallen  foe. 

The  story  of  Manfred,  which  is  immortalized  by  the  pen 
of  Dante,  has  never  lost  its  interest;  while  the  insatiable 
cruelty  of  Charles  of  Anjou  has  left  an  indelible  stain  upon 
his  reign,  in  some  respects  brilliant  and  notable. 

After  the  battle  of  Benevento,  Charles,  already  crowned 
as  King  of  the  Sicilies,  believed  himself  secure  on  his 
throne,  when,  in  1268,  Conradin,  the  grandson  of  Fred- 
erick II.,  —  who  had  been  reported  dead,  —  appeared  as 
leader  of  the  Ghibellines,  supported  by  Pisa,  and  joined 
battle  with  the  troops  of  Charles  at  Tagliacozzo.  The 
young  Suabian  seemed  about  to  defeat  the  French  king, 
when  a  fresh  legion  which  Charles  had  held  in  reserve 
was  brought  to  the  field,  and  Conradin's  cause  was  lost. 
He  was  taken  prisoner,  and  a  year  later,  this  last  repre- 
sentative of  the  Hohenstaufen,  not  yet  seventeen  years  old, 
was  cruelly  beheaded  in  the  Piazza  del  Mercato  at  Naples, 
together  with  his  cousin,  Frederick  of  Baden.  Thus, 
through  the  dastardly  murder  of  a  boy,  was  Charles  I.  of 
Anjou  firmly  established  as  King  of  Naples. 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO   CHARLES  V.  19 

In  the  ancient  church  of  S.  Maria  del  Carmine,  just  off 
the  Piazza  del  Mercato,  is  the  tomb  of  Conradin.  He 
was  originally  buried  behind  the  high  altar,  but  now  rests 
beneath  the  impressive  monument  erected  to  his  memory 
in  1847,  almost  four  centuries  after  his  death.  It  bears 
this  inscription :  "  Maximilian,  Crown  Prince  of  Bavaria, 
erected  this  monument  to  a  scion  of  his  house,  King 
Conradin,  the  last  of  the  Hohenstaufen." 

When  on  the  scaffold,  Conradin  threw  his  glove  into  the 
crowd  below,  thus  challenging  his  enemies.  Mrs.  Hemans, 
at  the  end  of  her  poem  "  Conradin,"  thus  commemorates 
his  bravery :  — 

"  The  youth  hath  given 

One  glance  of  parting  love  to  earth  and  heaven. 
The  sun  rejoices  in  the  unclouded  sky, 
Life  all  around  him  glows,  —  and  he  must  die  ? 
Yet  midst  his  people,  undismayed,  he  throws 
The  gage  of  vengeance  for  a  thousand  woes,  — 
Vengeance  that,  like  their  own  volcano's  fire, 
May  sleep  suppressed  awhile,  but  not  expire. 

The  lifted  axe  is  glittering  in  the  sun,  — 

It  falls,  —  the  race  of  Conradin  is  run  ! 

Yet  from  the  blood  which  flows  that  shore  to  stain, 

A  voice  shall  cry  to  Heaven,  —  and  not  in  vain. 

Gaze  thou,  triumphant  from  thy  gorgeous  throne, 

In  proud  supremacy  of  guilt  alone, 

Charles  of  Anjou,  —  but  that  dread  voice  shall  be 

A  fearful  summoner  e'en  yet  to  thee  ! " 

Charles  I.  of  Anjou  —  brother  of  Louis  IX.  of  France, 
called  Saint  Louis  —  had  married  Beatrice  of  Provence, 
who  had  brought  him  vast  riches,  and  made  him  ruler  of 
her  native  country.  She  was  ambitious;  three  of  her 
sisters  were  reigning  queens,  and  she  desired  to  equal 
them  in  rank,  and  exerted  her  influence  to  incite  Charles 
to  the  conquests  he  had  made. 


20  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

The  first  object  to  which  he  now  devoted  himself  was 
the  extinction  of  the  Saracens  and  all  others  who  had 
been  faithful  to  Manfred  and  Conradin,  an  end  which  he 
achieved  by  means  of  great  cruelties.  He  aimed  to  be  the 
absolute  master  of  his  territory,  and  fondly  hoped  to  wear 
the  Imperial  Crown.  But  Pope  Gregory  X.  had  other 
views ;  and  by  favoring  the  return  of  the  Ghibelline  exiles 
and  making  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  Emperor  of  Germany, 
he  effectually  lessened  the  power  and  ambition  of  Charles. 
His  successor,  Pope  Nicholas  III.,  still  further  humiliated 
the  King  of  Naples  by  depriving  him  of  his  senatorship  in 
Rome  and  his  power  in  Tuscany. 

Another  obstacle  to  the  attainment  of  his  wishes  was 
his  absence  during  two  years  in  a  crusade  against  the 
Infidels  ;  but  on  the  death  of  Nicholas  III.  and  the  election 
of  a  French  pope,  Martin  IV.,  Charles  counted  on  regain- 
ing all  that  he  had  lost.  This  hope  was  soon  crushed  by  a 
conspiracy  led  by  Peter  of  Aragon,  the  husband  of  Man- 
fred's daughter  Constance,  —  the  sole  heir  of  the  Hohen- 
staufen,  —  who  claimed  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  in  her  right, 
and  was  supported  by  the  Emperor  Michael  Paleologus. 

Charles  was  aware  of  their  plans,  and  was  preparing  to 
defend  himself,  when,  in  1282,  the  sleeping  hatred  of  the 
Sicilians  for  the  French  was  roused  to  vengeance  by  an 
insult  offered  a  Sicilian  bride  by  a  French  soldier.  The 
massacre  known  as  the  "  Sicilian  Vespers  "  followed,  and 
eight  thousand  Frenchmen  were  slain,  and  the  reign  of 
Charles  essentially  ended.  He  besieged  Messina,  but  was 
repulsed  by  Peter  of  Aragon,  who  was  proclaimed  king. 
The  Pope  thundered  his  anathemas  in  vain ;  Peter  and  his 
ally  gave  them  no  heed.  The  capture  of  the  son  of  Charles 
in  1284,  by  the  Admiral,  Roger  of  Loria,  completed  the 
mortification  and  sorrow  of  the  Angevine  king,  and  he 
lived  but  two  years  longer. 

Charles  II.  of  Anjou  ransomed  himself  from  prison  in 


FROM  FREDERICK  H.  TO  CHARLES  V.  21 

1286,  and  a  desultory  war  was  carried  on  in  Sicily  and 
Apulia  for  twenty  years,  until  finally  the  Sicilians  chose 
Frederick  II.,  son  of  Peter  of  Aragon,  for  their  king,  and 
Naples  was  left  under  the  rule  of  the  House  of  Anjou. 

Naples  still  possesses  some  splendid  monuments  to  the 
reigns  of  the  first  two  rulers  of  this  dynasty.  Charles  I. 
devoted  himself  to  making  this  city  a  place  of  importance, 
with  more  energy  than  his  predecessors  had  shown.  He 
removed  the  seat  of  government  from  Palermo  thither, 
thus  making  Naples  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  and  ex- 
tended the  city  on  the  east  as  far  as  the  Piazza  del  Mercato. 
He  filled  in  the  marshes  between  the  ancient  walls  and  the 
sea,  and  in  1283  founded  the  Castel  Nuovo ;  this  became 
a  royal  residence,  and  was  adorned  and  strengthened  from 
time  to  time  during  five  centuries.  In  1862  a  portion  of 
its  fortifications  were  condemned  to  demolition  because 
of  the  possibility  of  their  being  used  for  the  destruction 
of  the  city,  and  the  outer  walls  and  bastions  have  been 
removed. 

Charles  I.  repaired  the  old  walls  of  Naples,  and  paved  its 
streets ;  he  destroyed  the  ancient  Palace  of  the  Republic ; 
to  commemorate  his  victory  at  Benevento,  he  built  the 
church  of  S.  Lorenzo  ;  he  founded  the  church  of  S.  Agos- 
tino  della  Zecca  and  several  monasteries ;  and  also  began 
to  build  the  cathedral  or  churcli  of  S.  Gennaro — Janua- 
rius  —  in  which  his  tomb  is  placed  above  the  great  door. 
It  is  a  majestic  monument,  and  was  restored  by  the  Count 
of  Olivares,  more  than  three  centuries  after  the  death  of 
the  first  Angevine  King  of  Naples.  His  queen,  Beatrice, 
and  his  son  Robert  were  buried  in  the  monastery  of  Mater 
Domini  at  Nocera,  in  the  midst  of  the  former  city  of  the 
Saracens,  so  cruelly  exterminated  by  Charles. 

Charles  I.  enlarged  and  beautified  the  Castel  dell'  Ovo, 
and  frequently  resided  there.  This  castle  dates  from  1154, 
and  takes  its  name  from  its  oval  form ;  it  was  remodelled 


22  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  is  on  the  island 
called  Megaris  by  Pliny,  which  is  connected  with  the  Pizzo- 
f alcone  —  a  spur  of  the  hill  of  S.  Elmo  —  by  an  embank- 
ment and  bridge ;  the  castle  is  now  a  prison. 

The  fortified  palace  of  Foggia,  in  which  Charles  died, 
was  erected  by  him ;  and  at  Gallipoli,  beautifully  situated 
on  a  rocky  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Taranto,  he  built  a  castle 
which  was  later  restored  by  Ferdinand  I.  He  also  sur- 
rounded the  castle  which  gave  its  name  to  Castellammare 
with  walls  and  fortifications,  and  during  the  nineteen  years 
of  his  reign  conferred  many  benefits  upon  the  Neapolitan 
capital. 

Charles  II.  of  Anjou  was  a  worthy  successor  of  his 
father  in  the  conception  and  execution  of  public  works. 
He  constructed  the  original  Molo  Grande  and  the  Porto 
Mercantile,  or  Porto  Grande,  in  1302;  he  continued  the 
building  of  the  cathedral,  and  erected  S.  Domenico  Mag- 
giore,  still  one  of  the  finest  churches  in  Naples,  and 
founded  the  less  important  S.  Pietro  Martire.  At  Castel- 
lammare, about  1300,  he  built  the  residence  which  he 
called  the  Casa  Sana;  later  it  was  known  as  the  Royal 
Villa  Quisisana,  which  means  "  Here  is  health  ; "  it  is  now 
the  property  of  the  city,  and  has  been  recently  fitted  up  as 
the  Grand  Hotel  Margherita;  the  view  from  its  terrace 
and  the  walks  in  its  park  make  it  a  charming  resort.  At 
times  Charles  II.  resided  in  the  Rufolo  Palace  at  Ravello, 
—  recently  the  home  of  an  English  gentleman ;  but  the 
favorite  residence  of  this  king  and  of  many  of  his  suc- 
cessors was  at  Vico  Equense,  on  the  road  between  Castel- 
lammare and  Sorrento,  so  famous  for  its  beautiful  views. 
Vico  was  founded  by  Charles  on  the  ruins  of  a  city  which 
had  been  destroyed  by  the  Goths ;  it  has  always  been  cele- 
brated for  the  excellence  of  its  olive  oil,  as  well  as  for  its 
charming  site  on  the  Bay  of  Vico,  near  the  rocks  known 
as  I  Tre  Fratelli.  —  The  Three  Brothers. 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.       23 

It  was  during  the  residence  of  Charles  II.  at  Vico  that 
Philip  the  Hardy  sent  his  ambassadors  to  demand  the 
hand  of  the  Princess  dementia  for  his  third  son,  Charles 
of  Valois.  The  Queen  of  France,  who  knew  that  Charles 
II.  had  been  lame  from  his  birth,  desired  that  the  ambas- 
sadors should  be  accompanied  by  their  wives,  and  that 
these  ladies  should  take  means  to  assure  themselves  that 
the  Princess  had  no  personal  defects.  The  Queen  of 
Naples  was  full  of  resentment  at  this  suspicious  inquiry, 
and  attempted  to  evade  the  question,  but  at  length  stipu- 
lated that  her  daughter  should  wear  a  delicate  robe  of  silk 
when  she  permitted  the  French  ladies  to  examine  her 
person.  This  not  seeming  to  be  entirely  satisfactory  to 
her  judges,  dementia,  with  much  spirit,  threw  off  her  robe, 
exclaiming, "  Non  amittam  regnum  Galliae  pro  ista  interula  " 
—  "I  will  not  lose  the  kingdom  of  France  for  the  sake  of 
this  chemise.''  She  was  found  worthy  to  become  the  queen 
of  France,  and  was  the  mother  of  Philip  VI.,  who  opposed 
the  Black  Prince  at  Crecy. 

In  1294  Charles  II.  and  his  son,  Charles  Martel,  held 
the  bridle  of  the  mule  on  which  Pietro  da  Morone  rode 
into  Aquila  for  his  cpronation  as  Pope  Celestine  V.  In 
startling  contrast  to  the  sometime  pious  humility  of  this 
monarch,  was  his  brutal  destruction  of  Ischia,  with  fire  and 
sword,  in  revenge  for  the  part  taken  by  the  Ischians  in  the 
revolt  of  John  of  Procida,  the  leader  of  the  Sicilian  Ves- 
pers. But  it  was  characteristic  of  the  kings  of  the  House 
of  Anjou  to  build  and  endow  churches,  and  show  great  ven- 
eration for  the  pontiffs  who  pleased  them,  while  they  per- 
petrated revolting  crimes  within  their  palaces,  and  revenged 
themselves  upon  their  enemies  with  the  utmost  cruelty. 
Few  human  hearts  have  been  torn  by  more  antagonistic 
forces  than  was  that  of  Charles  II.  of  Anjou,  now  resting 
in  its  silver  casket  in  the  grand  old  church  of  S.  Domenico 
Maggiore. 


24  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

In  1309  Robert,  Duke  of  Calabria,  the  third  son  of 
Charles  II.,  known  as  Robert  the  Wise,  became  King  of 
Naples.  He  was  ambitious  of  wearing  the  imperial  crown 
of  Italy ;  but  in  1327  King  Louis  of  Bavaria  succeeded  in 
obtaining  this  honor,  and  vowed  vengeance  upon  Robert. 
The  Romans  at  first  received  Louis  gladly,  but  when,  in 
1329,  they  saw  the  fleet  of  Naples  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber,  another  sentiment  prevailed  among  them,  and  the 
Emperor  was  forced  to  retreat  to  the  North  of  Italy. 
Long  years  of  serious  disturbances  succeeded  these  events. 
Robert  the  Wise  was  now  too  old  to  lead  the  Guelfs  to 
victory,  as  he  had  formerly  done,  and  the  Ghibelline  power 
was  vastly  increased.  When  John  of  Bohemia  became 
their  leader,  Florence  appealed  to  Robert  for  aid ;  but  he 
merely  sent  them  Walter  of  Brienne,  Duke  of  Athens,  who 
did  them  harm  rather  than  good  ;  and  in  1343  King  Robert 
ended  his  reign  in  the  midst  of  bitter  contentions  between 
Guelf  and  Ghibelline,  and  the  spirit  of  freedom  and  that  of 
tyranny  which  these  terms  represented. 

While  still  Duke  of  Calabria,  in  1308,  Robert  had 
founded  the  town  of  Citta  Ducale,  then  on  the  frontier 
of  the  Neapolitan  territory.  After  he  came  to  the  throne 
he  enlarged  and  completed  the  port  of  Salerno,  which  had 
been  commenced  by  Manfred,  and  proved  his  wisdom  by 
founding  the  Castel  Sant'  Elmo,  which  was  later  so  im- 
proved and  strengthened  as  to  be  considered  impregnable. 
It  is  now  a  military  prison ;  from  its  ramparts  one  sees  a 
splendid  panorama  of  the  Bay  of  Naples,  the  city  itself, 
and  the  district  on  the  west  of  the  bay. 

A  delightful  association  with  the  memory  of  Robert  the 
Wise  is  his  appreciation  of  Giotto,  whom  he  summoned 
from  Florence  on  the  advice  of  Boccaccio.  Giotto  deco- 
rated the  chapel  in  the  Castel  dell'  Ovo  and  the  church 
of  S.  Chiara,  which  was  founded  by  King  Robert.  No 
traces  of  these  frescos  remain  in  the  castle,  and  those  in 


Interior  of  the  Church  of  Santa  Chiara. 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.  25 

the  church  were  whitewashed  (!)  when  it  was  vulgarly 
decorated  in  1752.  A  picture  called  the  Madonna  della 
Grazie  is  attributed  to  Giotto,  but  it  is  difficult  to  believe 
it  to  have  been  his  work.  Vasari  tells  us  how  happy 
Robert  found  himself  in  the  society  of  this  painter,  the 
friend  of  Dante  and  the  witty  comrade  of  the  brilliant 
Florentines  of  his  day.  King  Robert  was  also  the  friend 
of  Petrarch,  in  whose  company  he  took  great  pleasure. 
Together  they  visited  the  tomb  of  Virgil.  Before  Petrarch 
was  crowned  with  laurels  at  Rome,  he  was  examined  by 
King  Robert,  who  not  only  gave  the  poet  a  satisfactory 
diploma,  but  also  conferred  on  him  his  own  royal  mantle 
to  wear  at  the  ceremony,  as  he  was  too  aged  to  assist  at  it 
in  person.  King  Robert  was  called  a  second  Solomon,  and 
was  wise  and  experienced  in  affairs  of  peace  and  of  war. 
His  love  of  books  was  a  passion,  and  in  all  circumstances 
and  places  he  had  them  at  his  side  and  in  his  hand.  He 
generously  welcomed  to  his  court  scholars  and  artists,  who 
helped  to  revive  the  intellectual  traditions  of  an  earlier 
century,  when  the  poetry  of  Southern  Italy  had  even  influ- 
enced that  of  Tuscany.  The  Greeks,  too,  were  encouraged 
to  visit  the  court  of  Robert  the  Wise ;  and  their  language 
and  the  ancient  literature,  after  half  a  century  of  neglect, 
were  again  studied  by  the  Neapolitans.  In  short,  he  seems 
to  have  merited  his  sobriquet,  and  to  have  been  a  far  more 
attractive  man  than  were  his  predecessors  in  the  dynasty 
of  Anjou. 

Robert  displayed  an  admirable  modesty  in  refusing  to 
have  the  monument  which  is  said  to  have  been  designed  by 
Masuccio  II.  executed  during  his  lifetime.  It  was  erected 
by  his  granddaughter,  Joanna  I.,  and  is  behind  the  high- 
altar  in  S.  Chiara.  In  the  upper  part  of  this  monument 
Robert  appears  as  a  monarch  on  his  throne,  beneath  which 
is  the  inscription,  said  to  have  been  written  by  Petrarch, 
"  Cernite  Robertum  regem  virtute  refertum,"  which  may 


26  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

be  rendered,  "  King  Robert  [here]  ye  gaze  upon,  Valor's 
perfect  paragon."  Below  this  royal  statue,  on  a  splendid 
sarcophagus,  supported  by  saints,  the  king  is  again  seen  in 
the  dress  of  a  Franciscan  monk ;  while  above  all  is  the 
Madonna  between  SS.  Francis  and  Clara. 

The  erection  of  this  monument  is  almost  the  only  repu- 
table act  recorded  of  Queen  Joanna  I.  She  is  believed  to 
have  instigated  the  murder  of  her  first  husband,  Andrew 
of  Hungary,  which  occurred  in  1345  in  the  garden  of  the 
Celestine  Convent  at  Aversa.  This  murder  was  made  the 
pretext  for  arousing  the  Neapolitans  against  the  queen 
by  her  cousins,  Robert  of  Taranto  and  Charles  Durazzo; 
and  she  fled  with  her  lover,  Louis  of  Taranto,  to  Pope 
Clement  VI.,  at  Avignon,  where  the  guilty  pair  were 
married.  It  was  under  the  rule  of  Queen  Joanna,  and 
during  the  life  of  King  Andrew,  that  Petrarch  witnessed 
those  gladiatorial  combats  at  Naples,  in  the  arena  near 
the  church  of  S.  Giovanni  a  Carbonara,  which  filled  him 
with  disgust  and  horror.  The  tomb  of  the  second  spouse 
of  Queen  Joanna  is  in  the  famous  church  of  Monte  Vergine, 
beside  that  of  his  mother,  Catherine  of  Valois,  who  gave  to 
this  monastery  the  miraculous  image  of  the  Virgin,  so 
celebrated  in  Southern  Italy,  which  she  obtained  from 
Constantinople. 

In  1347  Naples  was  desolated  by  a  terrible  war  waged 
by  Louis  the  Great  of  Hungary,  a  brother  of  the  murdered 
Andrew.  The  leader  of  the  invading  army  was  that  infa- 
mous German  mercenary,  Werner,  who  boasted  that  he 
was  "  the  enemy  of  God,  of  pity,  and  of  mercy ; "  and  not 
until  1351  was  peace  made  between  Louis  and  Joanna, 
and  these  mercenary  troops  withdrawn  from  her  territory. 

Meantime,  in  1345,  Italy  had  suffered  from  a  famine, 
and  thousands  had  perished  by  starvation.  Three  years 
later  the  plague  raged  with  frightful  violence ;  sixty  thou- 
sand died  in  Naples  alone ;  and  these  successive  scourges 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO   CHARLES  V.  27 

of  a  cruel  and  licentious  soldiery,  famine,  and  plague,  left 
behind  them  a  lawless  and  demoralized  condition  of  things 
from  which  the  Neapolitans  emerged  in  a  state  of  semi- 
barbarism. 

Long  before  and  after  this  terrible  period  (1305-1377), 
the  Popes  had  dwelt  mostly  at  Avignon,  which  Joanna  I.  is 
said  to  have  given  Pope  Clement  VI.,  together  with  eighty 
thousand  florins,  she  having  inherited  it  through  Beatrice 
of  Provence,  wife  of  Charles  I.  of  Anjou.  At  length,  in 
1377,  Gregory  XI.  left  Avignon  and  returned  to  Rome ; 
and  the  papal  residence  in  France,  having  endured  seventy 
years,  was  called  the  "  Babylonish  Captivity."  But  on  the 
death  of  Gregory  a  great  schism  again  sprung  up  in  the 
Church,  and  two  popes  were  elected.  Urban  VI.,  who 
remained  at  Rome,  was  a  violent  man,  and  so  offended 
Queen  Joanna  that  she  upheld  Clement  VII.,  who  dwelt  at 
Avignon ;  while  Charles  of  Durazzo,  her  cousin  and  heir, 
was  devoted  to  Pope  Urban  VI. 

Joanna,  who  was  now  married  to  her  fourth  husband, 
Otto  of  Brunswick,  —  the  third  having  been  James  of 
Aragon,  —  was  still  childless,  and  in  order  to  thwart  the 
hopes  of  Charles  she  adopted,  as  her  heir,  the  son  of  King 
John  of  France,  Louis  of  Anjou.  But  Urban  crowned 
Charles  King  of  Naples ;  and  Louis  of  Hungary,  who  had 
not  forgotten  the  murder  of  his  brother  Andrew,  sent  an 
army  to  Charles  Durazzo  to  enable  him  to  seize  the  throne. 
Therefore,  in  1381,  Charles  III.  entered  Naples ;  and 
Joanna,  being  speedily  abandoned  by  the  troops  of  her 
husband,  was  made  prisoner.  Her  crimes  had  been  so 
many  and  great  —  her  support  of  Clement  VII.,  which  was 
viewed  as  a  crime  by  his  opponents,  being  recently  added 
to  the  number — that  Charles,  although  bound  to  her  by 
ties  of  blood,  showed  himself  a  pitiless  captor.  He  sent 
her,  a  close  prisoner,  to  the  castle  of  Muro,  where,  on 
May  12, 1382,  she  was  suffocated  beneath  a  feather-bed  by 


28  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

two  Hungarian  soldiers,  who  acted,  it  is  said,  on  the  advice 
of  the  aged  king  of  Hungary. 

The  tomb  of  Joanna  I.  is  next  that  of  her  father  in 
Santa  Chiara ;  and  it  is  generally  believed  that  Raimondo 
Cabano,  whom  she  raised  from  the  degraded  condition  of  a 
Saracen  slave  to  be  the  High  Seneschal  of  her  kingdom,  as 
a  reward  for  his  aid  in  her  crimes,  especially  in  the  murder 
of  her  first  husband,  is  also  buried  in  this  church. 

The  name  of  Joanna  I.  is  associated  with  the  splendid 
old  Certosa  of  S.  Martiuo,  which  she  completed,  it  hav- 
ing been  begun  by  her  father,  Charles,  Duke  of  Calabria, 
who  died  before  his  father,  King  Robert.  This  convent, 
near  the  castle  of  S.  Elmo,  is  celebrated  for  its  magnifi- 
cent views,  and,  since  its  suppression  as  a  monastery,  is 
used  as  an  annex  to  the  Museo  Nazionale,  being  filled  with 
most  interesting  objects.  It  is  scarcely  possible  that  any- 
thing remains  from  the  time  of  Joanna ;  but  the  cloisters, 
the  audience  chamber,  chapter  house,  and  church,  although 
rebuilt  in  later  days,  still  must,  in  a  way,  be  associated 
with  this  queen ;  and,  remembering  her  character,  one 
involuntarily  wonders  whether  she  built  King  Robert's 
tomb  and  completed  her  father's  work  from  filial  affection 
and  respect,  or  because  she  liked  to  plan  and  execute  mag- 
nificent works  for  which  she  should  be  famous  long  centu- 
ries after  her  fitful  life  was  ended.  She  also  built  the 
church  of  the  Incoronata  as  a  memorial  of  her  coronation 
and  her  marriage  with  Louis  of  Taranto. 

Charles  of  Durazzo  encountered  great  difficulties  in  mak- 
ing himself  supreme  master  of  his  kingdom.  The  adopted 
son  of  Joanna  I.,  Louis  of  Anjou,  besieged  Charles  III.  in 
that  Castel  dell'  Ovo  where  Giotto  had  painted  his  frescos, 
and  which  Froissart  represents  as  being  at  this  time  one  of 
the  strongest  castles  in  existence,  "  situated  as  it  were  by 
enchantment  in  the  sea,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  take  it 
but  by  necromancy,  or  by  the  help  of  the  devil."  Then, 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.       29 

too,  the  arrogant  Urban  VI.,  having  for  some  reason 
deserted  the  cause  of  Charles  and  espoused  that  of  Louis, 
established  himself  with  his  court  and  cardinals  in  the 
famous  castle  of  Nocera,  and  claimed  to  be  the  superior 
of  the  monarch  on  whom  he  had  himself  bestowed  a 
crown. 

Charles  besieged  the  pontiff  with  a  large  army;  but 
the  Pope,  trusting  to  the  strength  of  his  fortress,  simply 
pronounced  his  curse  upon  the  besiegers  several  times 
a  day,  with  bell  and  candle.  He  was  at  length  released 
by  Raimondello  Orsini  and  the  Genoese,  who  compelled 
Charles  to  raise  the  siege.  While  in  the  castle  Urban  sus- 
pected the  fidelity  of  his  cardinals,  and  after  witnessing  the 
most  cruel  tortures  ,of  six  of  their  number,  he  confined 
them  in  a  cistern  so  long  as  he  remained  there.  One  of 
these  cardinals  was  a  legate  from  Richard  II.  of  England, 
whom  Urban  pardoned  at  the  intercession  of  that  monarch ; 
but  the  other  five  were  tied  in  sacks  and  thrown  into  the 
sea. 

Louis  of  Anjou  survived  Queen  Joanna  but  a  year ;  and 
after  his  death  Charles  of  Durazzo  held  the  throne  in  secu- 
rity during  the  short  remnant  of  his  life.  After  the  death 
of  his  uncle,  Louis  of  Hungary,  Charles  went  to  that  coun- 
try to  claim  the  throne  in  the  right  of  his  wife,  was  de- 
clared a  conspirator  against  the  widow  and  daughter  of 
the  late  king,  and  in  1386  was  murdered,  in  the  midst  of 
their  loyal  subjects. 

Ladislaus,  the  young  son  and  heir  of  Charles  III.,  was 
destined  to  the  same  stormy  life  that  his  predecessors  had 
led.  The  adherents  to  the  Angevine  dynasty  regarded 
him,  young  as  he  was,  as  their  sovereign,  and  faithfully 
supported  his  claims ;  but  the  French  party  endeavored  to 
establish  Louis  II.  on  the  throne  of  Naples. 

The  long  and  bloody  struggle  which  followed  resulted  in 
the  victory  of  Ladislaus.  As  the  war  proceeded,  the  young 


80  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

king  proved  himself  a  valiant  soldier  ;  and  in  1389  his  army 
defeated  Louis  in  a  battle  fought  in  Ischia,  which  island 
the  French  had  occupied. 

Later,  the  great  schism  in  the  Church,  and  the  violent 
contentions  in  the  election  of  a  Pope,  which  engrossed  all 
parties,  gave  Ladislaus  an  opportunity  to  increase  his  power 
in  various  directions ;  and  he  used  all  the  means  at  his 
command  to  prolong  the  struggle,  as  a  French  Pope,  if 
elected,  would  have  overthrown  his  government.  At  length 
it  was  thought  that  the  growing  strength  of  the  King  of 
Naples  threatened  the  Florentines  and  other  powers  in 
Italy ;  and  Braccio,  a  famous  mercenary  soldier  —  who  had 
previously  fought  for  Ladislaus  —  was  now  lured,  by  larger 
pay,  to  oppose  him.  In  this  emergency  the  young  king 
employed  Attendolo  Sforza,  another  celebrated  free  lance, 
who  from  a  peasant  had  risen  to  be  a  general  of  armies 
and  a  worthy  rival  of  Braccio. 

Genoa  had  been  hitherto  the  ally  of  the  French,  but  by 
some  potent  influence  was  now  induced  to  forsake  them 
and  join  the  Neapolitans  ;  and  Louis,  fearing  lest  he  should 
be  hemmed  in  between  two  hostile  armies,  retreated  while 
he  could.  In  1410  the  Florentines,  with  Braccio's  aid, 
entered  Rome,  and  compelled  the  Romans  to  consent  to 
the  election  of  Alexander  V.,  believing  that  a  universally 
accepted  pope  would  be  the  most  efficient  check  upon  the 
power  of  Naples.  But  Alexander  died  before  accomplish- 
ing the  desired  end,  and  the  French  and  Florentines 
united  to  establish  John  XXIII.  on  the  papal  throne ;  and 
in  1411  these  allies  invaded  the  territory  of  Naples  with 
twelve  thousand  soldiers,  among  whom  were  the  bravest 
condottieri  and  other  warriors  in  all  Italy. 

Ladislaus  was  defeated  on  his  own  ground.  His  army, 
nearly  as  large  as  that  of  the  allies,  was  drawn  up  at 
Rocca  Secca,  awaiting  the  attack,  which  Louis  led  in  person 
with  great  impetuosity.  Nearly  all  the  nobles  who  served 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.  31 

under  Ladislaus  were  captured,  but  he  escaped  to  San  Ger- 
mano.  Had  Louis  restrained  his  own  desire  and  that  of 
his  men  for  plunder,  and  pursued  his  rival,  he  would  have 
gained  a  complete  victory ;  but  so  eager  were  his  troops  for 
money  that  they  thought  of  nothing  else,  and  even  sold 
their  arms. 

While  his  enemies  were  thus  engaged  in  pillage,  Ladis- 
laus occupied,  with  his  troops,  all  possible  avenues  to 
Naples ;  and  Louis  of  Anjou,  although  the  victor  in  the 
famous  battle  of  Rocca  Secca,  was  in  reality  defeated  as 
to  the  main  object  of  the  war,  and,  being  forced  to  withdraw 
his  army,  left  Ladislaus  to  make  the  real  conquest  and 
become  the  master  of  the  Papal  States.  When  Ladislaus 
learned  that  his  enemies  were  actually  in  retreat,  he  said : 
"The  day  after  my  defeat,  my  kingdom  and  my  person 
were  equally  in  the  power  of  my  enemies;  the  next  day 
my  person  was  safe,  but  they  were  still,  if  they  chose, 
masters  of  my  kingdom ;  the  third  day  all  the  fruits  of 
their  victory  were  lost." 

Ladislaus  now  employed  Sforza  to  compel  Pope  John, 
who  had  made  himself  hated  by  his  cruelty,  to  fly  from 
the  sacred  city.  The  Pope  appealed  to  the  Empire  north 
of  the  Alps  for  aid;  and  shortly  after,  Sigismund,  the 
brother  of  Wenceslaus,  who  had  been  deposed,  was  made 
King  of  the  Romans.  The  enemies  of  Ladislaus  looked  to 
this  new  monarch  for  revenge  on  Naples,  because  Charles 
of  Durazzo  had  attempted  to  seize  the  crown  of  Hungary, 
which  Sigismund  inherited  by  the  right  of  his  wife,  Mary, 
the  daughter  of  Louis  the  Great,  of  Hungary. 

But  Sigismund  was  more  occupied  with  his  desire  and 
determination  to  end  the  scandals  in  the  Church  than  with 
his  private  schemes  ;  and  as  Ladislaus  died  in  1414,  —  it  is 
said  by  poison,  —  he  escaped  the  punishment  which  Pope 
John  had  hoped  to  see  inflicted  on  him.  In  the  following 
year,  at  the  Great  Council  at  Constance,  Martin  V.'  was 


32  NAPLES  AND   ITS  ENVIKONS. 

elected  Pope,  and  acknowledged  by  all  Christendom ;  thus 
ended  the  great  schism. 

The  stormy  reign  of  Ladislaus  afforded  but  small  oppor- 
tunity for  the  works  of  peace.  However,  he  erected  a  large 
part  of  the  modern  walls  around  the  ancient  town  of  Cora, 
mentioned  by  Virgil,  Pliny,  and  Plautus,  where  the  most 
important  and  interesting  ruins  repay  the  study  of  the 
antiquarian. 

At  Naples  he  restored  and  enlarged  the  church  of  S. 
Giovanni  a  Carbonara,  where  his  tomb  was  erected  by  his 
sister,  Joanna  II.,  and  is  called  the  masterpiece  of  Andrea 
Ciccione.  It  is  placed  behind  the  high  altar,  and,  its 
height  being  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  church,  it  is  most 
imposing  in  effect.  An  equestrian  statue  of  Ladislaus,  with 
crown  on  head  and  sword  in  hand,  spirited  in  pose,  occu- 
pies the  summit.  Below  this  is  a  sarcophagus  on  which  is 
a  recumbent  figure  of  the  king ;  a  bishop  is  pronouncing 
a  benediction  over  it,  thus  indicating  that  the  ban  of  the 
Church,  under  which  lie  died,  had  been  removed.  Still 
below  this  is  a  niche  in  which  statues  of  Ladislaus  and 
Joanna  are  seated  on  thrones,  while  four  Virtues  are  sit- 
ting near  them.  Besides  these  principal  figures  there  are 
many  statues,  columns,  and  other  ornaments,  all  carefully 
executed,  which  serve  to  make  this  monument  notable 
even  in  a  church  which  is  celebrated  for  its  tombs  and 
sculptures. 

The  reign  of  Joanna  II.  (1414-1435)  is  memorable  for 
the  wars  that  divided  all  Italy  in  the  interests  of  the 
houses  of  Anjou  and  Aragon,  and  for  the  unusual  charac- 
ter of  the  Free  Captains,  or  Mercenaries,  and  many  of  the 
nobles  who  were  engaged  in  these  struggles. 

The  private  life  of  Joanna  was  far  from  reputable ;  she 
was  guilty  of  infidelity  in  all  her  relations,  as  a  woman  and 
as  a  queen.  But  her  second  husband,  Jacques  de  Bourbon, 
treated  her  so  cruelly  as  to  arouse  great  sympathy  in  her 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.       33 

behalf,  and  her  subjects  drove  him  out  of  the  kingdom. 
She  had  no  children,  and  the  question  as  to  whom  she 
would  adopt  as  her  heir  interested  her  friends  and  foes 
alike. 

The  great  Attendolo  Sforza,  the  general  on  whom  she 
relied,  used  his  influence  in  favor  of  Louis  III.  of  Anjou, 
the  grandson  of  that  Louis  who  had  been  adopted  by  her 
cousin,  Joanna  I.  But  the  counsel  of  her  favorite,  Ser 
Giovanni  Caraccioli,  prevailed;  and  Joanna  II.  adopted 
Alfonso,  King  of  Aragon  and  Sicily,  as  heir  to  her  throne 
and  possessions. 

As  years  passed,  the  number  of  those  who  favored  the 
succession  of  the  Angevines  was  largely  increased,  and 
Louis  III.  determined  to  seat  himself  upon  the  throne  of 
Naples.  In  1420,  with  the  approbation  of  Pope  Martin  V. 
and  the  aid  of  the  Genoese,  Louis  appeared  before  Naples 
with  his  army.  He  was  repulsed  by  Alfonso,  and  in  spite 
of  his  determination  to  succeed  had  apparently  little  ground 
for  hope  ;  but  Joanna  II.  quarrelled  with  Alfonso,  revoked 
her  adoption  of  him,  —  by  reason  of  his  ingratitude  and 
opposition  to  her  will,  —  and  substituted  Louis  III.  of 
Anjou  in  his  stead.  This  occurred  in  June,  1423  ;  and  in 
September  of  the  same  year  Louis  was  formally  adopted 
at  Aversa,  the  Norman  town  in  which  Andrew  of  Hungary 
was  murdered. 

Louis  entered  Naples  in  triumph,  Calabria  submitted  to 
his  authority,  and  in  spite  of  the  variable  disposition  of  the 
queen,  all  went  well  until  he  was  recalled  to  France  in 
1426,  by  Charles  VII.,  who  required  his  aid  against  the 
English.  Louis  distinguished  himself  in  the  French  cam- 
paigns, and  in  1431,  having  married  Margaret  of  Savoy, 
daughter  of  Amadeus  VIII.,  returned  to  Italy,  and  died  at 
Cosenza,  the  capital  of  Calabria,  in  1434,  and  was  buried 
in  the  cathedral  of  that  city.  Queen  Joanna  survived  him 
but  a  few  months,  and  by  her  last  will  and  testament  left 

3 


34  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

her  kingdom  to  the  brother  of  Louis  III.,  Rend  of  Anjou, 
who  thus  became  the  sovereign  of  all  the  vast  domains  of 
the  House  of  Anjou,  over  which  no  other  ruler  of  that 
dynasty  had  held  full  power. 

The  principal  public  works  of  Queen  Joanna  II.  were 
the  tomb  of  her  brother  Ladislaus,  —  into  which  her  vanity 
led  her  to  introduce  her  own  statue, —  and  the  restoration 
of  the  church  of  S.  Maria  dell'  Annunziata,  in  which  is  her 
own  sepulchre,  —  far  too  simple  and  unpretending  a  monu- 
ment to  represent  the  character  of  this  proud  and  volup- 
tuous queen.  A  fire  in  the  Nunziata,  in  1757,  destroyed  the 
fine  paintings  with  which  it  had  been  enriched  by  succes- 
sive popes  and  sovereigns,  and  little  now  remains  that  is 
older  than  its  rebuilding  by  Luigi  Yanvitelli  in  1782. 

A  favorite  residence  with  Joanna  was  a  villa  on  the 
island  of  Nisida,  —  the  Nesis  of  the  ancients,  —  which 
island  was  the  residence  of  Brutus  after  the  murder  of 
Caesar,  B.  c.  44,  where  Cicero  came  to  confer  with  him  on 
affairs  of  state,  and  where  Brutus  took  leave  of  Portia 
before  sailing  for  Greece.  Nisida  was  also  the  place  to 
which  Augustulus  was  exiled  by  Odoacer  after  the  fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  and  in  the  Augustan  Age  the  Roman 
epicures  prized  the  asparagus  of  Nesis  as  superior  to  that 
of  any  other  spot ;  their  good  judgment  is  still  endorsed 
by  those  who  eat  the  Nisidian  grapes,  olives,  figs,  and 
asparagus  of  the  present  day. 

Joanna's  villa  was  converted  into  a  fort,  in  order  to 
repulse  the  fleet  of  Louis  III.  while  the  queen  still  favored 
Alfonso  of  Aragon,  and  now  serves  as  a  prison.  In 
1624  the  Duke  of  Alva  erected  the  Lazaretto  here,  which 
recently  has  been  used  as  a  quarantine  station  ;  and  in  our 
own  century  a  port  was  constructed  between  Nisida  and 
the  mainland,  which  is  a  fine  example  of  the  civil  engineer- 
ing of  modern  days. 

Two  interesting  portraits  of  Joanna  II.  were  painted  by 


The  Island  of  Nisida. 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.       35 

Antonio  Solario,  called  Lo  Zingaro  from  his  early  trade  of 
a  tinker.  One  of  these  pictures  belongs  to  a  private  col- 
lection, not  easily  seen  by  a  traveller ;  but  in  the  Museum 
of  Naples,  the  Madonna  surrounded  by  eight  saints  —  in 
the  room  of  the  Neapolitan  school,  painted  by  Solario  — 
is  said  to  be  a  portrait  of  Queen  Joanna ;  while  the  figure 
behind  Saint  Peter  is  a  portrait  of  the  daughter  of  Colan- 
tonio  del  Fiore,  for  love  of  whom  this  artist  renounced  his 
early  calling,  and,  like  Quintin  Massys,  took  to  the  brush. 
The  figure  at  the  extreme  left,  behind  Saint  Aspremus,  is 
also  called  a  portrait  of  the  Zingaro  himself.  There  are 
those  who  doubt  the  genuineness  of  these  likenesses ;  but 
who  can  tell  whether  it  be  so  or  not? 

Joanna's  death  was  the  signal  for  wars  and  contentions 
for  the  throne  of  Naples  between  the  French  and  Ara- 
gonese  claimants,  —  in  which  a  large  part  of  Europe  was 
involved,  —  which  continued  seventy  years  and  ended  in 
its  becoming  a  Spanish  possession. 

Alfonso  of  Aragon  claimed  the  Neapolitan  throne ;  but 
the  Republic  of  Genoa,  under  the  direction  of  the  Duke  of 
Milan,  declared  itself  in  favor  of  Ren<5  of  Anjou,  who  was 
at  this  time  the  prisoner  of  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, in  the  Tower  of  Bar  at  Dijon.  When  his  inher- 
itance of  a  kingdom  under  the  will  of  Queen  Joanna  was 
made  known  to  him,  the  joy  it  might  have  brought  him 
under  other  circumstances  was  turned  to  bitterness  by  the 
fact  of  his  imprisonment,  which  his  added  importance 
would  tend  to  make  more  rigorous. 

As  Rene*  feared,  so  it  proved.  The  Duke  at  once  trans- 
ferred his  prisoner  to  Bracon,  and  determined,  now  that  he 
had  a  king  in  his  power,  to  push  to  the  last  possible  sou 
the  price  of  his  ransom,  and  to  profit  as  much  as  he  might 
by  this  change  of  circumstances.  It  may  easily  be  under- 
stood that  Rene*  was  excited  almost  to  madness  by  his 
desire  for  freedom,  that  he  might  possess  and  enjoy  his 


36  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

brilliant  heritage  on  the  Bay  of  Naples,  as  well  as  add  to 
the  glory  and  riches  of  the  House  of  Anjou.  The  repre- 
sentations of  the  Neapolitan  ambassadors  convinced  him 
that  no  time  could  be  lost  if  he  wished  to  prevent  the  King 
of  Aragon  from  seizing  Naples,  and  he  determined  imme- 
diately to  send  his  wife,  Isabella  of  Lorraine,  as  his  regent, 
with  full  powers  for  peace  or  war.  The  letters  which 
named  her  the  Lieutenant-General  of  her  husband  were 
signed  at  Dijon  in  1435,  four  months  after  the  death  of 
Joanna. 

The  tedious  and  complicated  course  of  events  which  led 
to  the  liberation  of  Rene*  is  not  to  be  recited  here,  neither 
will  we  recount  the  mingled  success  and  failure  which  at- 
tended the  rule  of  Queen  Isabella  during  the  weary  months 
of  her  husband's  confinement.  Not  until  May,  1438,  did 
King  Ren£  first  feast  his  eyes  on  the  marvellous  panorama 
of  the  Bay  of  Naples  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  which 
formed  the  southern  boundary  of  his  new  inheritance. 
While  the  unequalled  natural  beauties  satisfied  his  artistic 
nature,  and  the  souvenirs  of  classic  ages  appealed  to  his 
scholarly  instincts,  the  sight  of  the  Spanish  flag  floating 
from  the  Castel  dell'  Ovo  and  the  Castel  Nuovo  reminded 
him  that  this  heaven-endowed  heritage  could  not  be  peace- 
fully enjoyed  until  conquered  through  fierce  and  bloody 
battles. 

On  landing,  Isabella  met  him  with  their  youngest  son ; 
while  the  eldest,  John,  with  his  wife,  disembarked  at  the 
same  moment.  This  family  reunion  excited  the  quick 
sympathy  of  the  Neapolitans,  who  rent  the  air  with  sincere 
shouts  of  welcome.  A  better  acquaintance  with  the  person 
of  their  new  sovereign  served  but  to  increase  their  enthusi- 
asm. Rene",  not  yet  thirty  years  old,  and  already  so  expe- 
rienced in  the  chances  and  changes  of  human  life,  was 
affable  in  bearing,  and  possessed  of  such  personal  charms 
as  could  not  fail  to  recommend  him  to  his  impressionable 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.   TO  CHARLES  V.  37 

subjects.  They  attended  him  to  Castel  Capuano,  where 
Queen  Isabella  was  residing  ;  and  three  days  later  he  made 
his  triumphal  entry  into  Naples  on  horseback,  and  assumed 
his  seat  upon  the  throne  of  the  kingdom.  The  enthusiasm 
of  his  reception  knew  no  bounds.  De  la  Marche  tells  us 
that  the  people  embraced  each  other  and  cried  out,  "  The 
war  is  ended ! "  when,  alas  !  the  war  was  about  to  begin. 

The  renowned  general,  Jacopo  Caldora,  soon  presented 
himself  to  King  Rene*,  who  reviewed  the  troops  he  had 
brought  with  him.  He  offered  his  soldiers  to  his  sovereign, 
but  pleaded  his  own  age  as  a  reason  why  he  should  retire 
from  active  service.  But  Rene*  so  well  knew  the  worth  of 
his  counsel  that,  far  from  consenting  to  his  retirement,  the 
king  conferred  on  Caldora  the  full  command  of  the  mili- 
tary affairs  of  his  kingdom,  thus  gaining  an  opportunity  to 
examine  and  reorganize  the  civil  administration  of  the 
government. 

Rene"  instituted  important  reforms  in  the  conduct  of  the 
University  of  Naples,  of  the  Certosa  of  S.  Martino,  and 
the  Congregation  of  S.  Martha.  He  made  new  and  just 
laws  relative  to  commerce,  duties,  and  taxes,  and,  so  far  as 
he  was  able,  rewarded  those  who  had  assisted  Queen 
Isabella  in  her  struggle  to  maintain  his  authority  until  he 
could  gain  his  freedom  and  take  the  reins  of  government 
in  his  own  hands.  King  Rene*  was  not  long  permitted  to 
occupy  himself  with  civil  affairs;  in  August,  but  three 
months  after  his  arrival  in  Naples,  he  found  it  necessary 
to  go,  with  all  the  troops  that  he  could  muster,  to  the 
assistance  of  Caldora  in  the  Abruzzi,  where  he  was  opposed 
to  Alfonso  with  an  army  much  larger  than  that  of  the 
Neapolitans.  Hostilities,  which  endured  for  some  months, 
first  in  the  mountains,  and  finally  at  Naples  itself,  resulted 
in  the  defeat  of  the  Aragonese,  who  were  driven  into  Cala- 
bria, leaving  Naples  and  the  surrounding  country  in  the 
control  of  King  Rend. 


38  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

At  this  point  the  friends  and  allies  of  the  two  claimants 
to  the  Neapolitan  kingdom  endeavored  to  negotiate  a  peace- 
ful solution  of  the  quarrel  which  should  put  an  end  to  their 
wars,  and  bring  good  government  and  prosperity  to  both 
Sicily  and  Naples  ;  but  each  one  of  the  powers  claiming  to 
be  interested  in  these  objects  had  its  own  ends  to  gain, 
and,  in  fact,  pursued  them  in  preference  to  the  measures 
which  might  have  resulted  in  the  good  of  all. 

After  long  and  futile  arguments  on  one  side  and  the 
other,  in  November,  1441,  Alfonso  regularly  besieged  the 
city  of  Naples,  having  previously,  while  Rene*  awaited 
the  conclusion  of  the  negotiations  for  peace,  skilfully 
worked  his  way  here  and  there  in  the  disputed  territory, 
and  by  one  means  and  another  prevailed  on  many  towns 
to  favor  his  cause.  Francesco  Sforza  and  Antonio  Caldora, 
son  of  the  famous  Jacopo,  had  both  proved  traitors,  of  the 
blackest  dye,  to  the  cause  of  Rene". 

In  spite  of  all  his  discouragements,  the  French  prince 
displayed  undaunted  courage  and  a  character  of  the  noblest 
type.  Could  he  have  relied  on  any  outside  aid,  his  per- 
sonal valor  and  daring  deeds,  if  imitated  by  but  a  handful 
of  his  followers,  might  have  turned  the  tide  of  events  in 
his  favor.  But  the  Duke  of  Milan  feared  lest  the  power 
of  France  should  be  too  largely  increased;  Charles  VII. 
was  engrossed  with  the  English  and  his  own  affairs  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  cause  of  his  brother-in-law,  and,  indeed, 
he  had  never  ceased  to  hold  amicable  relations  with  Al- 
fonso of  Aragon ;  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  was  rendered  almost 
powerless  by  the  divisions  in  the  Church ;  the  mercenary 
captains  were  unfaithful  to  their  engagements  ;  the  Vene- 
tians were  no  reliance  for  Ren£ ;  the  aid  which  the  Genoese 
could  give  him  was  insufficient ;  and  of  equal  importance 
with  any  one,  or  perhaps  more  than  one,  of  these  unfortu- 
nate conditions,  was  his  want  of  money. 

Finally,  seven  months  after  the  beginning  of  the  siege, 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.  39 

after  heroic  efforts  to  repulse  the  enemy  almost  single- 
handed,  he  embarked,  with  the  few  followers  who  wished 
to  share  his  fortunes,  on  some  Genoese  galleys,  and,  landing 
at  Pisa,  made  his  way  to  Florence.  Here  an  element  of 
comedy  was  mingled  with  the  tragedy  of  his  experiences, 
when  the  Pope  solemnly  conferred  on  him  the  crown  of 
the  kingdom  which  he  had  already  lost. 

Thus,  after  nearly  four  years  of  almost  incessant  war- 
fare, was  the  reign  of  the  House  of  Anjou  ended  in  Naples. 
Ren6  persisted  in  styling  himself  the  King  of  Naples,  and 
so  long  as  he  lived  indulged  the  dream  of  reclaiming  the 
throne  he  had  lost.  To  this  end  he  used  all  the  diplomacy 
at  his  command,  as  well  as  his  own  troops  and  those  of  his 
son.  If  he  failed  to  recover  his  throne,  his  race  had  con- 
ferred a  vast  benefit  on  France ;  for  the  reign  of  the  House 
of  Anjou  in  Naples  during  one  hundred  and  seventy-five 
years  had  secured  to  the  French  that  power  in  Italy  which 
endured,  in  greater  or  less  degree,  for  centuries  after  the 
failure  of  the  Angevine  princes. 

De  la  Marche  is  right  in  affirming  that  the  Aragonese 
monarch  had  neither  the  bravery,  the  uprightness,  the 
chivalric  gallantry,  nor  the  popularity  of  King  Rene'.  Even 
Alfonso  recognized  the  furia  francese  of  his  rival,  —  which 
always  amazed  the  Italians  and  filled  them  with  admira- 
tion, —  when  he  exclaimed,  "  Take  care,  the  lion  is  un- 
chained ! "  But  the  Aragonese  was  a  master  in  strategy ; 
his  patience  was  untiring,  and  he  hesitated  at  nothing  that 
could  further  his  cause  ;  and  since  address  often  surpasses 
courage,  and  cunning  overmasters  integrity,  the  reasons 
for  the  failure  of  Rene*  and  the  success  of  Alfonso  are  not 
far  to  seek.  The  latter  was  undoubtedly  the  most  able 
sovereign  who  had  ruled  at  Naples  since  the  days  of  the 
Hohenstaufen  Frederick. 

The  entrance  to  the  Castel  Nuovo,  opposite  the  Strada 
del  Castello,  leads  to  a  Triumphal  Arch  which  commemo- 


40  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

rates  the  entrance  of  Alfonso  into  Naples  after  the  defeat 
of  King  Rene*,  in  1442.  This  arch  was  erected  in  1470, 
twelve  years  after  the  death  of  Alfonso.  Vasari  calls  it 
the  work  of  the  architects,  Pietro  di  Martino  of  Milan  and 
Giuliano  da  Maiano  of  Florence.  Strictly  speaking,  this 
arch  formed  the  entrance  to  the  fortifications,  and  is  some- 
times called  the  finest  monument  at  Naples.  On  each  side 
are  Corinthian  columns  which  support  a  frieze  and  cornice ; 
above  is  an  attic  with  bas-reliefs  representing  the  entrance 
of  Alfonso,  by  the  sculptors  Isaia  da  Pisa  and  Silvestro 
delP  Aquila.  There  are  statues  of  the  four  Cardinal 
Virtues,  in  niches ;  and  above  are  SS.  Michael,  Anthony 
Abbot,  and  Sebastian,  by  Giovanni  da  Nola,  which  were 
added  by  Don  Pedro  de  Toledo.  The  celebrated  bronze 
gates  are  by  the  monk  Guglielmo  of  Naples,  and  represent 
the  victories  of  Ferdinand  I.  over  Duke  John  of  Anjou 
and  his  own  rebellious  barons.  A  cannon-ball  embedded 
in  the  left  wing  is  a  souvenir  of  the  time  of  Gonsalvo  da 
Cordova,  early  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

When  Alfonso  died,  in  1458,  he  left  the  kingdoms  of 
Aragon  and  Sicily  to  his  legitimate  heir,  John,  and  Naples 
to  his  illegitimate  son,  Ferdinand,  who  was  known  to  be  an 
extremely  cruel  man.  The  Neapolitans  begged  of  John, 
Duke  of  Calabria  and  son  of  King  Rene*,  to  come  to  their 
aid.  Duke  John,  who  was  the  French  Governor  of  Genoa 
and  already  had  a  footing  in  Italy,  was  quite  ready  to 
attempt  the  recovery  of  the  throne  which  his  father  had 
lost,  and  King  Rene*  encouraged  his  son  to  assume  his 
rights  and  act  in  his  stead. 

The  Duke  of  Calabria  repeated  the  experience  of  his 
father  in  failing  to  obtain  helpful  allies.  However,  he 
landed  at  Castellammare,  and  many  Neapolitan  nobles 
hastened  to  range  themselves  under  his  banner.  In  July, 
1460,  near  Sarno,  he  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the 
army  of  Ferdinand,  which,  had  it  been  followed  up  with 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.  41 

energy,  should  have  taken  him  triumphantly  to  Naples. 
But  neither  the  Duke  of  Milan,  the  Medici  of  Florence,  nor 
the  King  of  France,  was  in  favor  of  his  cause ;  the  Genoese, 
too,  united  with  the  Duke  of  Milan  in  opposing  John,  and 
the  Pope,  Pius  II.,  was  avowedly  the  friend  of  Ferdinand. 
In  the  face  of  such  opposition  the  Duke  of  Calabria  must 
have  known  that  the  hopes  of  his  house  regarding  the 
throne  of  Naples  rested  on  but  slight  foundations. 

Nevertheless,  he  bravely  continued  his  struggles  until, 
at  Troja,  in  1462,  he  was  defeated  in  a  decisive  battle, 
which  endured  six  hours,  and  is  celebrated  as  one  of  the 
fiercest  struggles  of  the  fifteenth  century.  John  retreated 
to  Castellammare,  leaving  three  hundred  prisoners  and  five 
hundred  horses  in  the  hands  of  his  foes.  Here  many 
nobles  surrounded  the  Duke ;  and  the  great  condottiere, 
Piccinino,  privately  said  to  him,  — 

"  To-day,  if  you  wish,  you  may  be  master  of  this 
kingdom." 

"  And  how  ? "  demanded  the  Duke. 

"Arrest  all  these  men  and  send  them  to  Provence.  It 
is  they  who  continue  the  war,  arid  without  them  you  will 
have  the  advantage." 

"  No  member  of  my  family  has  been  a  traitor,"  answered 
the  Duke,  "  and  I  will  not  be  the  first.  If  it  pleases  God 
that  I  shall  be  a  king,  I  shall  be ;  if  not,  let  His  will  be 
done." 

In  1463  the  Duke  of  Calabria  intrenched  himself  in  the 
island  of  Ischia,  hoping  always  that  France  would  come  to 
his  assistance ;  but  in  this  very  year  Louis  XI.  made  an 
alliance  with  the  Duke  of  Milan,  and  ceded  to  that  noble 
his  claims  on  Genoa,  thus  indicating  that  France  might 
even  become  the  friend  of  Ferdinand  himself. 

John  returned  to  Provence  in  1464,  and  two  years  later, 
the  vacant  throne  of  Aragon  being  offered  to  King  Rene", 
the  Duke  was  sent  as  lieutenant-general  and  commandant 


42  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

of  the  forces,  to  Barcelona,  where  he  spent  years  in  con- 
tention and  warfare  with  John  of  Aragon.  However,  Rend, 
by  one  means  and  another,  had  made  alliances  and  brought 
his  plans  to  such  a  point,  that,  by  increasing  his  army,  in 
1469  there  seemed  to  be  a  prospect  of  success  for  the 
much  tried  Duke  of  Calabria,  when  suddenly,  in  December, 
1470,  he  died  at  Barcelona.  Poison  was  suspected,  and 
the  examination  of  his  'body  justified  this  theory  of  the 
cause  of  his  death ;  but  the  author  of  the  crime  was  never 
discovered. 

After  this  terrible  affliction,  the  ever  persistent  Rend, 
still  claiming  the  titles  of  King  of  Aragon  and  Sicily, 
retired  to  Provence,  where  he  lived  nine  years  more,  among 
those  who  loved  him  and  called  him  the  "good  King 
Rend,"  until,  in  July,  1480,  "  the  illustrious  King  Rend, 
this  Prince  of  Peace  and  Mercy,  rendered  his  soul  to  God 
amid  the  tears  and  sobs  of  all  his  people,  and  above  all 
of  those  of  his  capital."  Fortunately,  the  passion  of  Rend 
for  music,  painting,  and  poetry  served  to  make  him  for- 
getful of  his  defeats  and  misfortunes,  which  would  have 
driven  another  sort  of  man  to  madness. 

The  church  of  S.  Lorenzo  at  Naples,  built  in  1266  by 
the  first  prince  of  the  House  of  Anjou  who  reigned  there, 
is  rich  in  a  variety  of  historical  associations.  The  nave 
was  almost  entirely  rebuilt  three  centuries  after  its  foun- 
dation, but  the  portal  and  choir  still  preserve  the  Gothic 
architecture  of  the  Angevine  dynasty.  Behind  the  high 
altar  are  the  funeral  monuments  of  the  House  of  Durazzo, 
the  second  branch  of  the  House  of  Anjou.  They  are 
elaborate  in  design  and  execution,  and  are  attributed  to 
Masuccio  II.;  but  no  reliable  proof  that  they  were  his 
work  now  exists. 

In  the  pavement,  near  the  entrance,  may  be  read  the 
name  of  Giambattista  della  Porta,  1550-1616,  famed  as 
the  discoverer  of  the  camera  obscura,  and  the  originator  of 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.  43 

the  plan  of  the  encyclopaedia.  In  this  church  Boccaccio  first 
saw  the  "  Fiammetta,"  whose  beauty  he  celebrated,  —  sup- 
posed to  have  been  Mary,  the  natural  daughter  of  King 
Robert ;  and  in  the  monastery  attached  to  this  church  the 
monks  were  happy  in  entertaining  Petrarch  as  their  guest. 

It  was  in  the  chapter-house  of  S.  Lorenzo  that  Alfonso 
I.  —  after  the  Pope  had  legitimized  Ferdinand  —  held  a 
great  parliament  of  priests  and  barons,  and,  under  the 
title  of  Duke  of  Calabria,  proclaimed  this  son  his  heir  to 
the  Neapolitan  kingdom.  Ferdinand's  coronation  occurred 
later  at  the  Cathedral  of  Barletta.  We  have  seen  that  his 
rights  were  disputed  by  John,  the  Angevine  Duke  of 
Calabria,  who  was  invited  to  the  contest  by  the  Neapoli- 
tan barons  who  hated  Ferdinand  on  account  of  his  cruelties. 
Not  until  1462  was  he  freed  from  the  Augevine  claims  to 
his  throne ;  and  during  the  succeeding  twelve  years  he 
was  engaged  in  plots  and  plans  which  allied  him  with  the 
Milanese  Sforza  and  the  Florentine  Medici,  and  enabled 
him  to  maintain  his  authority  in  spite  of  the  disaffection 
of  his  subjects.  Everything  was  accomplished  by  dishon- 
esty and  treachery ;  neither  in  Ferdinand,  nor  in  his  allies, 
nor  in  Pope  Innocent  VIII.,  did  a  spark  of  honesty  exist. 

After  1480,  all  Italy  enjoyed  a  period  of  repose  and 
prosperity.  Great  tracts  of  wild  land  were  brought  under 
cultivation,  and  the  growth  in  population  and  wealth  was 
large  and  rapid.  In  some  portions  of  Italy  manufacturing 
was  greatly  increased,  and  financial  transactions  yielded 
enormous  gains.  From  the  more  cultivated  centres,  nota- 
bly from  Florence,  where  idleness  and  sensuality  reigned 
supreme,  the  most  demoralizing  influences  were  dissemi- 
nated ;  the  sickly  philosophies  proclaimed  in  metaphorical 
and  stilted  periods  were  but  poor  guides  in  thought  and 
action,  when  compared  with  the  devout  and  soul-stirring 
religious  teaching  which  they  so  largely  displaced ;  and  in 
the  small  feudal  sovereignties  —  especially  in  the  South 


44  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

of  Italy  —  tyranny  was  so  sure  of  itself  that  such  vices 
and  crimes  as  are  utterly  unspeakable  were  constantly 
increasing. 

In  1492  new  disturbances  arose.  Pietro  di  Medici  and 
King  Ferdinand  made  an  alliance  against  the  Pope  and  the 
Duke  of  Milan,  and  the  latter  revenged  himself  by  inviting 
Charles  VIII.  of  France  to  prosecute  his  claim  to  the 
throne  of  Naples  as  the  representative  of  the  House  of 
Anjou.  Ludovico  Sforza  succeeded  in  dazzling  the  eyes 
and  blinding  the  judgment  of  the  son  of  the  cautious 
Louis  XI.,  and  in  spite  of  the  disapproval  of  his  wisest 
counsellors  he  enlisted  in  a  campaign  that  he  was  persuaded 
would  make  him  the  equal  of  the  great  Charlemagne  in 
glory. 

His  first  conquest  should  be  Naples;  the  second, Greece; 
and  continuing  his  triumphant  course  to  the  East,  driving 
all  enemies  before  him,  the  Holy  Sepulchre  and  the  city  of 
Jerusalem  should  be  rescued  from  the  power  of  the  Turks, 
and  brought  safely  into  the  bosom  of  the  Christian  Church. 
Such  was  the  sum  of  his  anticipated  triumphs. 

Before  entering  upon  so  important  an  undertaking, 
Charles  VIII.  made  many  preparations  which  he  believed 
would  assure  him  success,  the  most  momentous  of  which 
were  treaties  of  peace  with  the  sovereigns  of  England  and 
Spain,  the  King  of  the  Romans,  and  the  Archduke  Philip. 

Ferdinand  I.  was  greatly  alarmed  by  the  prospect  of 
this  invasion.  He  knew  how  heartily  his  subjects  hated 
him,  and  how  gladly  they  would  welcome  any  change,  since 
they  could  not  be  more  oppressed  than  they  already  were. 
He  hastened  to  make  an  alliance  with  Pope  Alexander  VI., 
promising  to  aid  him  in  his  chief  ambition,  —  the  advance- 
ment of  his  children,  —  but  had  secured  no  other  allies, 
when,  in  the  midst  of  these  anxious  preparations.  —  early 
in  1494,  —  "  the  old  Fox  of  Aragon "  died,  leaving  his 
kingdom  to  his  son  Alfonso  II. 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.       45 

During  the  thirty-four  years  of  his  reign,  cordially  hated 
as  he  was,  Ferdinand  I.  conferred  on  Naples  some  benefits 
for  which  he  should  be  gratefully  remembered.  He  intro- 
duced the  art  of  printing  by  inviting  a  German,  Sixtus 
Reissinger,  to  set  up  his  press  in  his  capital;  and  other 
Germans  following  Reissinger,  printing  was  firmly  estab- 
lished there  during  Ferdinand's  life.  The  first  book  which 
Reissinger  printed  at  Naples  may  be  seen  in  the  Museo 
Nazionale  ;  it  is  Bartolo's  "  Lectura  super  Codicem,"  and  is 
dated  1471.  The  enormous  benefits  which  the  kingdom 
of  Naples  has  enjoyed  from  the  cultivation  and  manufac- 
ture of  silk,  also  established  by  Ferdinand,  are  too  well 
known  to  require  more  than  a  passing  mention,  while  some 
of  his  public  works  still  cause  his  reign  to  be  honorably 
remembered. 

Ferdinand  built  the  massive  Castel  del  Carmine,  and 
from  it  extended  the  city  walls  to  S.  Giovanni  a  Car- 
bonara.  He  fortified  these  walls  with  towers,  curtains, 
fosses,  and  counterscarps,  under  the  direction  of  Giuliano 
da  Maiano,  and  opened  several  new  gates,  placing  his  own 
statue  above  each  one  of  them.  Some  of  these  gates  and 
portions  of  the  old  walls  still  remain.  The  Porta  Capuana 
dates  from  1484 ;  it  is  of  white  marble,  flanked  by  two 
handsome  round  towers,  and  is  not  only  a  noble  monument 
to  the  art  of  Maiano,  but  is  one  of  the  finest  Renaissance 
gateways  still  in  existence.  The  towers  are  inscribed  with 
the  words  "  L'Onore  "  and  "  La  Virtu,"  and  were  called  by 
those  names ;  the  statue  of  Ferdinand  was  removed  from 
this  gateway  in  1535,  when  Charles  V.  passed  beneath  it 
to  make  his  triumphal  entrance  into  Naples. 

As  the  name  of  this  gate  indicates,  the  road  to  Capua 
passed  through  it  at  the  time  of  its  building.  Now  the 
Corso  Garibaldi  runs  outside  it,  leading  from  the  sea  to 
the  Strada  Foria,  not  far  from  the  Botanical  Garden. 
Here,  too,  near  the  gate  are  railway-stations,  while  far 


46  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

away  stretch  the  Paduli,  or  marshes,  which  are  the  kitchen 
garden  of  Naples,  where  one  crop  succeeds  another  through- 
out the  year.  No  other  example  of  the  Neapolitan  archi- 
tecture of  the  fifteenth  century  surpasses  this  gate  in 
artistic  interest;  while  the  historical  associations  which 
connect  it  with  the  marching  of  armies,  with  triumphal 
processions,  with  coronations  and  jubilant  festivals,  as 
well  as  with  scenes  of  sadness  and  sorrow,  are  too  many  to 
be  even  catalogued  here. 

Ferdinand  also  strengthened  the  Castel  Sant'  Elmo, 
known  in  his  time  as  the  Castello  di  San  Martino,  and 
erected  a  lighthouse  at  the  extremity  of  the  Molo.  With 
the  aid  of  some  of  his  barons,  he  continued  the  rebuilding 
of  the  cathedral,  begun  by  his  father  ;  and  in  commemora- 
tion of  this  good  work  of  the  nobles,  their  arms  are  sculp- 
tured on  the  pillars  of  the  church. 

In  1480  the  Turks  gained  possession  of  Otranto,  and 
Ferdinand  assembled  a  great  parliament  of  priests  and 
barons  at  Foggia,  to  concert  measures  against  the  invaders. 
The  Turks  were  repelled  by  the  son  of  Ferdinand,  after- 
wards Alphonso  II.  ;  and  Ferdinand,  fearing  lest  Taranto 
should  also  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans,  cut 
through  the  rocky  isthmus  on  which  the  city  is  situated, 
and  thus  converted  its  site  into  an  island. 

Ferdinand  I.  was  buried  in  the  sacristy  of  S.  Domenico 
Maggiore,  where,  of  the  forty-five  crimson  sarcophagi 
ranged  around  the  walls,  ten  contain  all  that  remains  of 
that  number  of  his  royal  house.  They  are  surrounded  by 
the  tombs  of  many  famous  men  and  women,  among  them 
being  that  of  the  Marquis  of  Pescara,  the  husband  of  the 
gifted  and  beloved  Vittoria  Colonna. 

In  the  Museum  at  Naples  there  is  a  picture  of  the 
Beato  Nicolas  Martyr,  which  has  been  called  by  some 
writers  a  portrait  of  Ferdinand  I.  of  Aragon  ;  but  I  find  no 
warrant  for  such  a  claim,  which  is  certainly  incapable  of 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.        47 

proof,  especially  as  Tesauro,  the  artist  to  whom  it  is 
attributed,  is  said  to  have  died  in  1380. 

Had  Ferdinand  lived,  he  would  have  avoided  war  with 
France,  if  possible  ;  but  Alfonso,  who  was  as  much  hated 
as  his  father  had  been,  was  of  a  proud  and  determined 
character,  and  prepared  to  defend  himself  against  his 
enemy.  He  made  an  alliance  with  Pope  Alexander,  and 
together  they  proposed  friendship  to  the  Sultan  Bajazet, 
and  advised  him  to  attack  the  French,  warning  him  of  the 
plan  that  Charles  VIII.  had  made  against  Constantinople. 
The  Sultan  considered  the  threatened  danger  as  too  distant 
to  demand  immediate  attention,  and  declined  the  alliance 
with  the  Holy  Father  and  the  King  of  Naples. 

Meantime  Charles  built  a  fleet  at  Genoa,  and  equipped 
an  army  in  Dauphiny,  hiring  many  Swiss  and  German 
mercenaries.  His  preparations  were  made  so  leisurely 
that  the  Italians  under  the  command  of  Don  Frederick, 
son  of  King  Alfonso,  began  hostilities  by  an  attack  on 
Genoa,  but  were  easily  repulsed  by  French  soldiers  led  by 
the  Duke  of  Orleans. 

At  length,  in  August,  1494,  Charles  VIII.  crossed  the 
Alps,  and  made  what  might  almost  be  termed  a  triumphal 
march  to  Naples,  where  he  was  welcomed  as  a  deliverer, 
Alphonso  II.  having  fled  to  Sicily,  and  his  son,  Ferdinand 
II.,  —  called  Fernandino,  —  to  whom  he  had  resigned  the 
Neapolitan  throne,  to  Ischia.  It  was  not  long,  however, 
before  the  Neapolitans,  who  had  confidently  looked  for 
good  government  under  the  French  monarch,  found  that 
they  were  little  better  off  than  they  had  been  under  the 
Aragonese.  While  Charles  was  not  the  oppressive  tyrant 
that  Ferdinand  I.  and  Alphonso  II.  had  each  been,  in  turn, 
he  placed  little  value  upon  the  kingdom  he  had  so  easily 
acquired.  The  French  officers  were  insolent  to  the  Nea- 
politans, and,  from  Charles  down  to  his  hired  soldiers, 
the  army  was  devoted  to  riotous  living  and  all  kinds  of 


48  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

dissipation.  The  principal  Neapolitans  were  disgusted  and 
angry  at  the  high-handed  manner  in  which  Charles  made 
large  grants  of  land  to  his  followers,  and  conferred  on  them 
the  desirable  offices  in  the  kingdom. 

In  his  passage  through  Italy,  Charles  had,  in  one  way 
and  another,  incurred  the  enmity  of  all  the  rulers  with 
whom  he  had  come  in  contact.  The  Pope,  the  Florentines, 
and  even  the  Duke  of  Milan,  who  had  invited  him  hither, 
were  now  equally  anxious  to  be  rid  of  his  presence  in  the 
peninsula.  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  and  Maximilian,  King  of 
the  Romans,  each  had  their  reasons  for  wishing  Charles  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Alps,  and  a  league  between  all  these 
powers  was  speedily  formed  against  the  French  monarch. 

The  knowledge  of  this  league  determined  Charles  to 
return  to  France ;  this  he  did  with  but  few  and  slight  hin- 
drances, reaching  his  own  country  fourteen  months  after 
he  first  entered  Italy,  having  left  the  Count  of  Montpensier 
with  several  captains  and  a  small  army  to  rule  the  Neapo- 
litans, and  complete  the  conquest  of  their  country.  As 
neither  reinforcements  nor  money  were  sent  to  the  French 
troops  left  in  Naples,  they  soon  considered  themselves 
deserted  and  forgotten,  and  became  utterly  demoralized. 

Ferdinand  II.  returned  to  Naples,  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
great  Spanish  captain,  Gonsalvo  da  Cordova,  had  regained 
nearly  all  that  his  father  had  lost,  when,  in  October,  1496, 
he  was  borne  from  Somma  to  Castel  Capuano,  sick  unto 
death.  In  the  "  Cronaca  di  Notar  Giacomo,"  this  account 
is  given :  — 

"On  the  following  Thursday,  the  Most  Reverend  Lord 
Archbishop,  Alexander  Carafa,  led  two  solemn  processions, 
one  of  which  went  towards  the  Nunziata,  bearing  the  head  and 
blood  of  the  glorious  martyr  St.  Januarius,  followed  by  a 
numberless  troop  of  women  with  burning  wax  torches.  As  the 
procession  reached  the  castle,  the  queen  mother  appeared  under 
the  portal  and  threw  herself  on  the  ground,  upon  which  the 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.       49 

Archbishop  uttered  three  prayers :  the  first  to  the  Madonna, 
the  second  for  the  sick  King,  and  the  third  to  St.  Januarius. 
Then  they  all  exclaimed  '  Misericordia '  so  loudly  and  tumultu- 
ously  that  the  Archbishop  could  hardly  finish  the  prayer  amid 
the  lamentations  of  the  people.  On  the  following  Friday,  at 
the  seventh  hour,  another  procession  was  about  to  march  to 
Santa  Maria  la  Nuova:  then  came  the  intelligence  that  God 
had  taken  the  Lord  King  to  himself.  Cujus  anima  requiescat 
in  pace." 

Ferdinand  II.  was  succeeded  by  his  uncle  Frederick, 
Prince  of  Altamura.  Thus  there  were  four  sovereigns  of 
Naples  —  aside  from  Charles  VIII.  —  in  the  three  years 
which  succeeded  the  death  of  Ferdinand  I.  of  Aragon. 

The  burial-case  of  Ferdinand  II.  is  one  of  those  faded 
crimson  sarcophagi  of  which  we  have  spoken  in  the  sacristy 
of  S.  Domenico  Maggiore.  They  are  a  melancholy  spec- 
tacle, with  their  gilt  emblems  affixed  to  decaying  wooden, 
coffins,  —  fit  symbols  of  the  race  they  hold ;  a  race  want- 
ing in  solidity  and  earnestness.  The  remains  of  the  first 
Alfonso  —  called  the  Just  and  the  Magnanimous,  in  his 
time  second  only  to  Frederick  of  Hohenstaufen  among  the 
rulers  of  Naples  —  were  transported  to  Catalonia  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  buried  near  the  tombs  of  his 
ancestors. 

Two  interesting  episodes  in  the  life  of  Ferdinand  II. 
illustrate  his  cruelty  and  his  bravery.  When  he  fled  to 
Ischia,  on  the  very  day  that  his  father's  abdication  made 
him  king,  he  took  with  him  his  bride  —  his  aunt  Joanna  — 
not  yet  fourteen  years  old.  When  he  presented  himself 
before  the  castle  of  Ischia,  having  arrived  with  a  fleet  of 
fourteen  galleys,  the  castellan  refused  him  admission. 
After  much  discussion,  the  king  and  queen  were  permitted 
to  land ;  and  the  moment  that  Ferdinand  had  entered  the 
castle,  he  drew  his  sword  and  killed  the  castellan.  The 
garrison,  their  commander  being  murdered  before  their 


50  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIKONS. 

eyes,  made  no  resistance,  and  the  guards  and  troops  of  the 
king  were  soon  within  the  castle. 

At  the  battle  of  Seminara,  when  the  French  troops  com- 
pletely routed  the  Neapolitans  under  Gonsalvo  da  Cordova, 
Ferdinand,  while  bravely  endeavoring  to  rally  his  forces, 
was  in  great  personal  danger.  His  horse  fell  under  him 
and  he  could  not  extricate  himself,  when  the  noble  Gio- 
vanni d'  Altamura  went  to  his  aid,  gave  him  his  own  horse, 
and  wishing  his  sovereign  God  speed  to  a  place  of  safety, 
fell  dead,  riddled  by  a  hundred  wounds. 

Ferdinand  IT.  added  nothing  to  the  strength  or  beauty 
of  Naples.  On  the  contrary,  when  he  besieged  the  Castel 
delP  Ovo,  while  Charles  VIII.  was  master  of  the  city,  he 
entirely  dismantled  that  fortress,  already  more  than  three 
centuries  old,  having  been  founded  by  the  Norman,  Wil- 
liam I.  The  present  castle  dates  from  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

As  Alfonso  II.  had  been  king  less  than  a  year  when  he 
fled  to  Sicily,  he  erected  no  monuments  to  his  reign,  and 
escaped  at  the  menace  of  danger  as  if  chased  by  the  ghosts 
of  those  he  had  put  to  death.  His  stepmother  urged  him 
to  remain  but  three  days,  that  he  might  complete  a  whole 
year  as  sovereign.  But  so  cruel  a  man  could  not  be  cour- 
ageous, and  he  went,  taking  with  him  much  wine  of  many 
sorts,  which  he  dearly  loved,  and  seeds  to  plant  a  garden 
which  he  intended  to  make.  At  Messina  he  lived  with  the 
monks  of  Mount  Oliveto,  his  favorite  order ;  and  until  his 
death,  in  1495,  he  fasted,  prayed,  and  gave  abundant  alms, 
as  if  to  atone  for  the  frightful  sins  he  had  committed, —  if 
we  may  believe  Commines  when  he  says :  "  He  considered 
himself  no  longer  worthy  to  be  king,  he  had  been  guilty  of 
such  crimes  and  cruelties.  There  never  was  a  man  more 
savage  or  worse  than  he,  or  more  abandoned  to  debauch- 
ery.*' On  the  morning  of  his  birth  a  fiery  meteor  appeared 
in  the  heavens,  and  his  grandfather  predicted  that  he 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.  51 

would  bring  ruin  to  his  house  and  kindle  a  frightful  war 
in  Italy. 

While  still  Duke  of  Calabria,  Alfonso  II.  had  fully  in- 
dulged his  love  of  building  fine  villas,  surrounded  by  gar- 
dens and  parks  in  which  were  fountains,  and  hedges  of 
myrtle  and  citron,  and  roads  for  pleasure-riding.  Doubtless 
the  example  of  this  prince  excited  that  love  of  architectural 
enterprises  which  characterized  the  nobility,  statesmen, 
and  all  Neapolitans  of  wealth  at  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century. 

This  sovereign  was  a  great  benefactor  to  the  church  and 
monastery  of  Monte  Oliveto,  also  called  S.  Anna  dei  Lom- 
bardi.  He  adorned  this  church  with  numerous  works  of 
art ;  and  as  some  most  noble  families  vied  with  him  in  his 
pious  work,  Monte  Oliveto  became  a  treasury  of  the  art  of 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  As  Alfonso  affected 
the  Olivetan  or  White  Benedictines  more  than  any  other 
order,  it  was  not  unusual  for  him  to  sit  at  their  table  in 
the  refectory,  where  he  was  always  welcome.  He  lavished 
revenues  and  lands  on  this  monastery,  and  his  monument  in 
their  church  is  the  work  of  the  celebrated  Giovanni  da 
Nola.  In  the  chapel  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  there  is  a  sin- 
gular group  in  terra  cotta,  rather  coarsely  conceived  and 
executed,  by  Guido  Manzoni,  called  Modanino.  It  rep- 
resents Jesus  Christ  in  the  sepulchre,  surrounded  by  six 
life-size  figures,  all  kneeling.  They  are  portraits  of  con- 
temporaries of  the  sculptor ;  Alfonso  is  represented  as 
S.  John,  and  the  figure  next  him  is  his  son  Ferdinand. 

Frederick  of  Aragon  was  the  last  and  the  best  of  his 
house  to  be  King  of  Naples.  Hitherto  devoted  to  the  arts 
of  peace,  the  people  hailed  him  with  joy,  believing  that  in 
him  they  should  have  a  just  and  benevolent  ruler ;  indeed, 
all  parties,  however  hostile  before,  were  now  ready  to  make 
him  the  centre  of  their  hopes  and  interests.  The  principal 
fortresses  of  the  kingdom  were  in  his  power ;  he  had  sons 


52  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

whom  lie  hoped  would  inherit  his  throne,  and  when  he  was 
crowned  by  the  Cardinal  Caesar  Borgia,  the  sovereign,  the 
nobles  and  the  people  anticipated  a  prosperous  future.  In 
four  short  years  their  hopes  were  cruelly  blighted,  and  in 
eight  years  the  painful  life  of  this  last  Aragonese-Neapo- 
litan  king  was  ended  in  a  hated  foreign  land. 

Ferdinand,  the  Catholic  of  Spain,  had  already  deter- 
mined to  dispossess  his -cousins  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 
He  had  proposed  its  division  between  France  and  Spain  to 
Charles  VIII.,  and  after  that  monarch's  death  he  found  a 
ready  listener  to  his  schemes  in  Louis  XII.  who  desired  to 
rule  at  Naples  and  to  gain  possession  of  Lombardy,  which  he 
claimed  in  the  right  of  his  grandmother,  Valentina  Visconti. 

In  November,  1500,  at  Granada,  a  treaty  of  partition 
was  signed  with  the  greatest  secrecy.  Louis  XII.  was  to 
be  King  of  Naples  with  the  Abruzzi  and  Terra  di  Lavoro  ; 
Ferdinand  was  to  add  to  his  greater  honors  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Apulia  and  Calabria. 

Frederick  was  first  made  aware  of  his  betrayal  by  the 
approach  from  Rome  of  the  French  army  under  D'Aubigne" ; 
and  so  blind  was  he  to  the  character  of  his  Spanish  cousin 
that  he  confided  his  cause  to  Gonsalvo  da  Cordova,  then 
stationed  in  the  Terra  di  Lavoro,  who  marched  with  Span- 
ish troops  to  Capua,  and  joined  D'Aubigne"  in  the  storming 
and  pillage  of  that  city.  De  Reumont  says  :  — 

"  "When  this  unnatural  alliance  became  known  in  Naples,  the 
barons,  the  gentry,  and  the  people  assembled  themselves  in  the 
cathedral ;  they  heard  mass  devoutly,  and  at  the  elevation  of 
the  host  they  swore  aloud  to  be  united  and  one  body,  and  faith- 
ful to  their  lawful  ruler ;  but  when  the  enemy  stood  at  the, 
gates,  union  and  fidelity  were  at  an  end.  Then  was  Naples 
lost.  Frederick,  to  save  his  capital  from  the  fate  of  Capua, 
concluded,  in  Aversa,  a  capitulation  with  the  leader  of  the 
victorious  army,  and  promised  to  give  up  the  castles.  The 
duplicity  of  Ferdinand  had  crushed  his  hopes." 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.  53 

In  1501  Frederick  went,  with  his  queen,  Isabella  del 
Balzo,  and  their  children,  to  Ischia.  There,  in  that  castle, 
high  on  the  rocky  promontory  which  afforded  him  so  exten- 
sive a  view  of  the  beautiful  inheritance  which  he  had  lost, 
he  was  compelled  to  choose  his  future  dwelling-place.  A 
month  later  he  sailed  for  France.  Louis  XII.  assigned  to 
Frederick  a  large  domain  in  the  garden  of  Anjou,  with  a 
generous  income  ;  but  his  hopes  were  wrecked,  and  he  could 
but  fade  away,  with  his  heart-breaking  sorrows  weighing 
him  down.  Not  the  least  of  these  was  the  thought  that 
his  eldest  son  was  in  the  power  of  the  perfidious  Gonsalvo 
da  Cordova,  who  had  carried  him  to  Spain. 

Ill  and  suffering,  Frederick  went  from  Amboise  to  Blois, 
whence  he  was  driven  by  a  fire  in  the  palace ;  and  seeking 
a  new  refuge  in  Tours,  he  rapidly  grew  more  feeble  until 
his  end  came,  in  thirteen  months  from  the  time  when  he 
bade  farewell  to  his  beloved  Bay  of  Naples.  He  was 
buried  with  royal  obsequies,  and  a  holy  brother  depicted 
his  lovely  character  in  a  sermon,  and  proclaimed  that  his 
soul  was  already  in  paradise,  to  which  his  patient  endur- 
ance of  many  cruel  sufferings  had  earned  for  him  a  ready 
welcome. 

His  queen  Isabella  refused  to  give  her  children  up  to 
Ferdinand,  as  that  king  and  Louis  XII.  had  agreed  that  she 
should  do,  and  her  jointure  was  taken  from  her.  She  and 
her  children  died,  one  after  another,  until,  in  1550,  the 
Duke  of  Calabria,  the  last  of  this  ill-starred  family,  died 
also,  and  was  buried  in  Spain. 

Such  an  alliance  as  that  of  Ferdinand  and  Louis  XII.  — 
of  Spain  and  France  —  could  scarcely  endure  for  long,  or 
be  advantageous  to  either  country  during  its  existence. 
After  a  series  of  misunderstandings  and  quarrels,  actual 
hostilities  began  in  1502;  and,  the  French  army  being 
defeated  in  four  battles  in  eighteen  months,  the  king- 
dom of  Naples  became  an  absolute  possession  of  Spain. 


54  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

This  result  may  be  said  to  have  been  brought  about  by 
Gousalvo  da  Cordova,  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  inter- 
esting men  of  his  time,  whose  character  and  achievements 
have  made  him  the  hero  of  romance  as  well  as  of  history. 
The  "  Great  Captain"  —  il  gran  capitano  or  el  gran  capitan 
—  he  is  called ;  and  he  was  also  great  in  other  important 
positions.  He  proved  himself  a  most  skilful  organizer,  and 
entirely  changed  the  service  of  his  army,  the  more  success- 
fully to  oppose  the  tactics  of  the  French.  His  control  of 
his  soldiers  was  almost  miraculous ;  he  demanded  patience 
and  subordination  when  they  were  without  food  or  clothing 
and  he  had  no  money  to  pay  them,  and  he  so  inspired  them 
with  his  own  courage  and  with  reliance  on  his  genius  that 
they  gave  him  what  he  required  of  them ;  they  were  what 
they  felt  that  their  Great  Captain  expected  them  to  be. 

Again,  their  very  position  compelled  them  to  conquer  or 
die ;  the  sea  on  one  hand,  and  impassable  mountains  on 
the  other,  cut  them  off  from  Spain.  Being  thus  continu. 
ally  under  one  great  leader  from  whom  they  could  not 
escape,  the  Spanish  infantry  was  gradually  moulded,  by 
Gonsalvo,  into  what  he  desired  ;  and  though  small  in  num- 
bers, it  annihilated  the  famous  French  armies  and  generals 
who  opposed  it,  and  afterwards  carried  the  victories  of 
Spain  to  the  countries  of  Europe  most  remote  from  that 
in  which  the  Great  Captain  had  made  it  irresistible. 

Severe  when  necessity  demanded  severity,  and  always 
courteous  to  his  inferiors,  Gonsalvo  was  generous  to  a 
vanquished  foe,  and  promptly  punished  his  own  soldiers 
who  offered  violence  to  his  opponents  when  their  battles 
were  over.  Prescott  says :  — 

"  From  the  moment  hostilities  were  brought  to  a  close,  Gon- 
salvo displayed  such  generous  sympathy  for  his  late  enemies, 
and  such  humanity  in  relieving  them,  as  to  reflect  more  honor 
on  his  character  than  all  his  victories.  .  .  .  His  benign  and 
courteous  demeanor  towards  the  vanquished,  so  remote  from 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES  V.       55 

the  images  of  terror  with  which  he  had  been  hitherto  associated 
in  their  minds,  excited  unqualified  admiration ;  and  they  testi- 
fied their  sense  of  his  amiable  qualities,  by  speaking  of  him  as 
the  gentil  capitaine  et  gentil  cavalier." 

The  treaty  of  Lyons,  which  put  an  end  to  the  French 
and  Spanish  war,  was  signed  in  the  spring  of  1504 ;  and 
Gonsalvo  remained  in  Naples,  conducting  the  affairs  of  the 
kingdom  as  Viceroy,  until  the  autumn  of  1506,  when  Fer- 
dinand visited  that  city.  Meantime  there  had  been  occur- 
rences of  vast  interest  and  importance  in  Spain,  with  which 
we  may  not  here  especially  concern  ourselves.  Queen 
Isabella  had  died  ;  Philip  had  reigned,  and  passed  off  the 
earthly  stage ;  Joanna  was  hopelessly  mad  ;  Ferdinand  had 
married  the  young  niece  of  Louis  XII.,  and  now  came  to 
Naples,  not  so  much  to  visit  his  new  kingdom  as  to  satisfy 
himself  of  the  loyalty  of  the  Great  Captain,  which  he  had 
been  led  to  suspect. 

At  Genoa,  Gonsalvo  met  his  sovereign ;  and  at  Portofino, 
while  on  their  journey  to  Naples,  they  received  the  news 
that  Philip  had  died  a  few  days  after  Ferdinand  had  sailed 
from  Barcelona.  The  Castilians  sent  messages  imploring 
the  king  to  return  to  them  at  once ;  but  he  continued  his 
course  towards  Naples,  and  was  everywhere  received  with 
enthusiasm.  When  he  reached  the  capital,  he  was  wel- 
comed with  every  possible  honor  and  shouts  of  joy.  An 
old  chronicler,  Los  Palacios,  described  the  entry  into 
Naples,  and  Prescott  thus  relates  his  story :  — 

"  The  monarch  was  arrayed  in  a  long,  flowing  mantle  of 
crimson  velvet,  lined  with  satin  of  the  same  color.  On  his 
head  was  a  black  velvet  bonnet,  garnished  with  a  resplendent 
ruby,  and  a  pearl  of  inestimable  price.  He  rode  a  noble  white 
charger,  whose  burnished  caparisons  dazzled  the  eye  with  their 
splendor.  By  his  side  was  his  young  queen,  mounted  on  a 
milk-white  palfrey,  and  wearing  a  skirt  or  undergarment  of 


56  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

rich  brocade,  and  a  French  robe  simply  fastened  with  clasps, 
or  loops  of  fine  wrought  gold. 

"  On  the  mole  they  were  received  by  the  Great  Captain,  who, 
surrounded  by  his  guard  of  halberdiers,  and  his  silken  array  of 
pages  wearing  his  device,  displayed  all  the  pomp  and  magnifi- 
cence of  his  household.  After  passing  under  a  triumphal  arch, 
where  Ferdinand  swore  to  respect  the  liberties  and  privileges 
of  Naples,  the  royal  pair  moved  forward  under  a  gorgeous 
canopy,  borne  by  the  members  of  the  municipality,  while  the 
reins  of  their  steeds  were  held  by  some  of  the  principal  nobles. 
After  them  followed  the  other  lords  and  cavaliers  of  the  king- 
dom, with  the  clergy  and  ambassadors  assembled  from  every 
part  of  Italy  and  Europe,  bearing  congratulations  and  presents 
from  their  respective  courts.  As  the  procession  halted  in 
various  quarters  of  the  city,  it  was  greeted  with  joyous  bursts 
of  music  from  a  brilliant  assemblage  of  knights  and  ladies,  who 
did  homage  by  kneeling  down  and  saluting  the  hands  of  their 
new  sovereigns.  At  length,  after  defiling  through  the  principal 
streets  and  squares,  it  reached  the  great  cathedral,  where  the 
day  was  devoutly  closed  with  solemn  prayer  and  thanksgiving." 

Gratified  as  Ferdinand  was  by  all  these  demonstrations, 
he  turned,  as  soon  as  possible,  to  the  serious  affairs  of  the 
kingdom.  He  instituted  various  reforms ;  called  a  par- 
liament in  which  important  questions  were  settled ;  oaths 
of  allegiance  to  his  daughter  Joanna  and  her  posterity 
were  made  ;  the  Angevine  proprietors  were  re-established  in 
their  old  estates  by  a  decree,  which  was,  however,  almost 
ineffectual;  and,  in  a  word,  the  Neapolitans  were  disap- 
pointed and  dissatisfied  with  this  king,  from  whom  they 
had  hoped  so  much,  and  who  had,  in  fact,  burdened  them 
with  new  imposts.  But  finally,  just  before  leaving  the 
city,  he  granted  the  request  of  the  people  for  the  re-estab- 
lishment of  the  University,  which  somewhat  soothed  their 
outraged  feelings. 

Ferdinand  was  ably  seconded  by  Gonsalvo  da  Cordova 
in  all  that  he  undertook,  and  he  could  not  fail  to  see  how 


FROM  FREDERICK  II.  TO  CHARLES    V.  57 

much  the  people  loved  the  great  soldier.  But  in  spite 
of  this  knowledge ;  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  con- 
quest of  Naples  and  the  defeat  of  the  French  were  due  to 
this  general ;  in  spite  of  the  good  service  he  had  rendered 
his  country  and  the  masterly  qualities  he  had  displayed, 
both  as  soldier  and  ruler,  —  Ferdinand  appointed  a  new 
viceroy,  and  took  the  Great  Captain  with  him  on  his  return 
to  Castile.  Each  year,  for  three  years,  he  made  a  similar 
change  ;  and  when  he  died,  in  1516,  Naples  had  little  reason 
to  mourn  his  death.  Prescott  says  :  — 

"  Gonsalvo  remained  a  day  or  two  behind  his  royal  master 
in  Naples,  to  settle  his  private  affairs.  In  addition  to  the 
heavy  debts  incurred  by  his  own  generous  style  of  living,  he 
had  assumed  those  of  many  of  bis  old  companions  in  arms, 
with  whom  the  world  had  gone  less  prosperously  than  with 
himself.  The  claims  of  his  creditors,  therefore,  had  swollen 
to  such  an  amount,  that,  in  order  to  satisfy  them  fully,  he  was 
driven  to  sacrifice  part  of  the  domains  lately  granted  him. 
Having  discharged  all  the  obligations  of  a  man  of  honor,  he 
prepared  to  quit  the  land,  over  which  he  had  ruled  with  so 
much  splendor  and  renown  for  nearly  four  years.  The  Nea- 
politans in  a  body  followed  him  to  the  vessel ;  and  nobles, 
cavaliers,  and  even  ladies  of  the  highest  rank  lingered  on  the 
shore  to  bid  him  a  last  adieu.  Not  a  dry  eye,  says  the  histo- 
rian, was  to  be  seen.  So  completely  had  he  dazzled  their 
imaginations  and  captivated  their  hearts  by  his  brilliant  and 
popular  manners,  his  munificent  spirit,  and  the  equity  of  his 
administration,  —  qualities  more  useful,  and  probably  more 
rare  in  those  turbulent  times,  than  military  talent." 

After  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  Naples  passed  nominally 
into  the  hands  of  the  mad  Joanna  of  Castile,  to  be  trans- 
ferred, a  year  later,  to  the  great  Charles  V.,  to  remain  for 
many  years  under  his  memorable  government. 


CHAPTER  III. 

CHARLES  V.   AND   PHILIP  II. 
1516-1598. 

FROM  1127,  when  Roger  II.  established  a  monarchy  in 
Naples,  to  the  partition  of  the  kingdom  in  1500,  the 
actual  sovereigns  had  oftentimes  resided  in  their  capital, 
and  viceroys  had  been  appointed  only  when  the  heirs  to 
the  throne  were  too  young  to  rule,  or  in  the  absence  of 
the  monarchs  themselves  ;  but  after  the  treaty  of  Granada, 
during  two  hundred  and  thirty-four  years,  no  sovereign  of 
Naples  resided  there,  and  a  long  series  of  viceroys  repre- 
sented the  Spanish,  the  Austrian-Spanish,  and  the  German- 
Austrian  rulers,  who  were  sometimes  kings  of  Naples  only, 
and  again  of  both  Sicily  and  Naples. 

The  story  of  Naples  from  1516  to  1527  is  a  confused 
account  of  a  certain  part  in  the  events  which  principally 
concerned  a  trinity  of  Popes,  Julius  II.,  Leo  X.,  and 
Clement  VII.  During  these  years  the  French  and  Span- 
iards were  striving  for  power  in  Italy;  but  no  French 
troops  invaded  the  Neapolitan  territory  until  1527,  when 
the  last  important  effort  was  made  to  establish  the  claims 
of  the  House  of  Anjou,  then  vested  in  the  descendants  of 
Violante,  daughter  of  the  bon  roi  Men£,  and  represented  by 
the  Count  of  Vaudemont. 

When,  in  1528,  the  great  Marshal  Lautrec  entered  the 
peninsula  with  his  army,  his  success  in  overthrowing  the 
existing  government  seemed  almost  a  foregone  conclusion. 
The  people,  worn  out  in  body  and  spirit  by  Spanish  oppres- 
sion, were  glad  of  any  new  master.  In  the  Abruzzi  they 


The  Heights  of  San  Martina  from  the  Mole. 


CHARLES  V.  AND  PHILIP  H.  59 

even  went  out  to  meet  the  French,  and  welcomed  them  as 
friends  ;  while  the  Spanish  viceroy,  Don  Ugo  de  Monc,ada, 
imputed  no  treachery  to  the  barons  who  raised  the  French 
standard  in  Naples  itself.  Capua  and  other  cities  yielded 
to  Lautrec,  and  he  proceeded  to  blockade  Naples  on  the 
east.  Thus  far  all  was  well  with  the  army  of  Francis  I. 

But  now  the  Prince  of  Orange,  Captain-General  of  the 
Imperial  Roman  Army,  appeared  on  the  scene.  He  forti- 
fied the  heights  of  S.  Martino,  which,  with  the  monastery 
and  the  castle  of  S.  Elmo,  commanded  the  city  and  shut  off 
all  enemies  from  the  west.  Mon$ada  and  Orange  disagreed 
in  a  way  that  might  have  resulted  in  the  advantage  of  the 
French,  had  not  the  former  fallen  in  a  battle  at  Capo 
d'  Orso. 

The  siege  was  prolonged ;  the  heat  of  midsummer  engen- 
dered fevers ;  the  soldiers  died  by  thousands,  and  Lautrec 
himself  fell  a  victim  to  disease  in  the  middle  of  August. 
All  thought  of  the  conquest  of  Naples  was  abandoned,  and 
under  the  command  of  the  Marquis  of  Saluzzo,  the  miser- 
able remnant  of  the  French  troops  reached  Aversa,  where 
they  encountered  the  Prince  of  Orange.  Most  of  the 
French  officers,  as  well  as  the  Italians  who  had  joined 
them,  were  made  prisoners  of  war.  Many  soldiers  were 
slain,  others  fled  to  the  Abruzzi  and  escaped ;  but  after  a 
few  days  no  Frenchman  could  be  found  in  the  Neapolitan 
peninsula. 

Philibert  of  Orange  was  viceroy  for  a  single  year ;  but  in 
that  time  he  so  divided  the  properties  of  the  Angevines 
between  the  Aragonese  whom  he  favored,  that  it  required 
the  extinction  of  but  one  more  family,  the  Sanseverini  of 
Salerno,  to  complete  the  final  destruction  of  the  Angevine 
element,  and  make  Naples  the  absolute  possession  of  Spain. 
Thus  it  resulted  that  when  Don  Pedro  de  Toledo  —  the 
greatest  viceroy  of  them  all  —  assumed  his  place,  in  1532, 
no  such  questions  as  had  troubled  his  predecessors,  con- 


60  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

cerning  the  rival  claimants  to  the  throne,  remained  to 
embarrass  him,  and  during  two  centuries  Spain  ruled  su- 
preme in  this  enchanting  land.  Of  this  issue  De  Reumont 
says  :  — 

"  It  was  not  accident  or  the  mere  force  of  arms  that  led  to 
this  result :  the  causes  of  it  lay  deeper ;  the  volatile  and  sus- 
ceptible Frenchman  was  not  the  ruler  to  preserve  the  dominion 
over  tbe  innovation-loving,  excitable,  loquacious,  and  unsteady 
Neapolitan.  Their  national  characters  resembled  each  other 
too  much  in  many  points,  and  their  difference  in  others  was 
so  much  the  more  offensive.  Received  with  open  arms,  the 
Frenchman  soon  made  himself  irreconcilable  enemies  by  his 
severity,  scorn,  and  supercilious  arrogance.  The  Italians  shud- 
dered at  the  desolating  massacres  of  the  French  wars ;  they 
writhed  under  the  iron  grasp  of  people  that  came  to  them  with 
chivalrous  demeanor,  then  trampled  them  under  foot,  and  con- 
taminated everything  still  remaining  as  precious  and  venerable 
in  their  possession. 

"  Such  were  not  the  Spaniards,  not  those  at  least  which  Gon- 
salvo  da  Cordova  led  from  the  Moorish  wars  to  the  conquest  of 
Naples.  Their  ascendancy  was  owing  as  well  to  an  iron  disci- 
pline as  to  that  inveterate  character  of  their  race,  the  firmness 
of  purpose  which  had  gradually  developed  itself  in  the  long 
struggle  for  the  country  which  they  wrenched  inch  by  inch 
from  their  tenacious  enemies.  The  Neapolitans  found  that 
they  had  in  the  Spaniards  different  rulers  from  the  French." 

Few  men  have  been  confronted  with  a  more  serious  prob- 
lem than  that  which  awaited  Don  Pedro  de  Toledo  when 
he  reached  Naples.  In  the  light  of  our  knowledge  of  what 
he  did  and  of  his  methods  of  action,  we  cannot  doubt  that 
from  the  beginning  he  set  himself  the  task  of  creating  a 
prosperous  and  well-ordered  Spanish  province  out  of  the 
wreck  of  a  kingdom  long  harassed  by  the  wars  and  claims 
of  the  royal  houses  which  had  contended  for  its  possession. 
The  whole  country  had  been  laid  waste,  and  the  people — 
greatly  reduced  in  numbers  by  plagues  of  war  and  pesti- 


CHARLES  V.  AND  PHILIP  II.  61 

lence  —  were  in  a  semi-barbarous  state.  Many  towns  had 
been  entirely  destroyed,  and  others  so  desolated  that  utter 
extinction  might  have  proved  a  blessing  in  comparison  with 
their  misery  and  the  impossibility  of  restoring  them  to 
their  former  estate.  The  great  families  who  belonged  to 
Naples  by  right  of  birth  and  inheritance  had  been  exiled, 
impoverished,  and  humiliated  beyond  endurance ;  while 
those  who  had  no  claim  on  the  respect  or  affection  of  the 
Neapolitans  had  achieved  riches  and  usurped  dignities. 
No  human  ties  seemed  to  bind  one  to  another  ;  oaths  were 
no  longer  respected ;  misery,  discord,  violence,  and  hatred 
reigned  supreme  ;  no  laws  were  enforced,  and  no  standard 
of  conduct,  public  or  private,  existed  in  all  the  kingdom. 

Toledo,  Marquis  of  Villafranca,  had  been  trained  to 
deeds  of  courage  as  a  soldier,  and  to  an  understanding  of 
statesmanship  from  his  boyhood,  by  constant  association 
with  King  Ferdinand  and  Charles  V.  He  was  forty-eight 
years  old  when  he  assumed  his  office  at  Naples,  and  at  once 
turned  his  attention  to  the  reformation  of  the  laws  and  the 
establishment  of  competent  tribunals  of  justice.  He  very 
soon  transformed  the  old  Castel  Capuano  into  a  grand 
court-house,  where  the  different  tribunals  could  be  held, 
as  they  are  to  this  day,  while  the  prisons,  located  below 
the  courts,  have  been  abandoned. 

Toledo's  legal  reforms  were  far  too  numerous  to  be  men- 
tioned ;  in  two  cases  he  was  severe  even  to  cruelty,  without 
attaining  his  ends.  The  Neapolitans  had  never  estimated 
perjury  as  the  deadly  sin  it  is  considered  by  other  nations, 
and  no  severity  of  punishment  nor  any  other  consideration 
could  absolutely  insure  the  truth  from  any  man  among 
them.  Toledo  decreed  the  death  penalty  for  the  second 
offence,  and  false  accusers  were  subject  to  the  same  law. 

The  second  great  evil  was  the  insecurity  to  life  and 
property  in  Naples.  The  vilest  outrages  were  of  constant 
occurrence,  and  were  largely  the  work  of  the  banditti  in 


62  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

the  employ  of  the  nobility.  Toledo  punished  with  death 
those  who  broke  into  houses  in  the  daytime  by  means  of 
ladders,  and  those  found  with  arms  upon  their  persons 
from  late  evening  until  morning.  In  these  matters  he  was 
no  respecter  of  persons  ;  and  one  of  the  first  to  be  executed 
for  entering  by  ladder  was  a  young  nobleman,  Col'  Antonio 
Brancaccio,  who  was  simply  bent  on  a  love  adventure. 

The  anger  and  disgust  of  the  nobles,  who  found  that  the 
viceroy  showed  them  no  favors,  were  equalled  only  by 
the  satisfaction  of  the  people,  when,  for  the  first  time,  the 
crime  of  a  nobleman  was  estimated  as  equally  reprehen- 
sible with  that  of  a  peasant.  In  eighteen  years  18,000 
persons  were  hanged  in  Naples  alone ;  and  yet,  when  the 
establishment  of  the  Inquisition  was  attempted,  Toledo 
gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  even  against  that  institution 
itself  false  witnesses  would  be  numerous.  Alicarnasseo, 
in  his  Life  of  Don  Pedro  de  Toledo,  says :  "  On  one  occa- 
sion, when  the  viceroy  was  in  Siena,  the  Academy  of  the 
Intronati  made  a  feast  for  him,  and  he  hesitated  not  to 
say  publicly,  *  I  had  rather  be  a  member  of  your  academy 
and  be  guided  by  such  worthy  women,  than  go  to  Naples 
to  annihilate  a  pack  of  robbers  in  order  to  keep  the  favor 
of  my  sovereign.' ': 

The  lawlessness  of  the  time  exposed  the  towns  on  the 
Neapolitan  coasts  to  great  suffering.  Turks,  and  other 
barbarian  pirates,  roamed  the  Mediterranean  and  Adriatic 
seas  at  will,  while  earthquakes  and  volcanic  eruptions 
added  their  horrors  to  the  devastations  of  man.  These 
convulsions  of  nature  destroyed  Pozzuoli  in  1538,  after  the 
whole  coast  had  been  desolated  by  pirates.  The  towns  on 
the  Bay  of  Gaeta  were  demolished.  Ischia  and  Procida 
were  destroyed  by  fire ;  while  on  the  coasts  of  Calabria  and 
Apulia,  not  only  had  the  cities  been  plundered  and  deso- 
lated, but  great  numbers  of  the  people  had  been  carried 
into  slavery. 


CHARLES  V.  AND  PHILIP  II.  63 

Toledo  did  much  for  the  rebuilding  of  Pozzuoli,  and  made 
great  exertions  to  induce  the  inhabitants  to  return  to  their 
deserted  city.  He  built  castles  and  fortresses  along  the 
entire  coasts  from  Terracina  round  to  the  upper  part  of 
Apulia.  These  towers  are  still  seen,  some  in  ruins,  others 
in  a  state  of  greater  or  less  preservation,  a  few  still  serving 
as  watch-towers.  He  built  the  castle  of  Baiae  —  now  used 
as  a  garrison  —  to  protect  the  shores  of  the  lovely  bay 
below,  and,  in  short,  executed  many  remarkable  works  for 
strengthening  the  defences  of  the  kingdom,  outside  of  all 
that  he  did  for  the  capital  itself. 

When  fortifications  were  built,  they  must  also  be  main- 
tained and  garrisoned,  and  this  demanded  a  vast  amount 
of  money  ;  when  the  sums  sent  to  the  Emperor  Charles  Y. 
to  aid  in  carrying  on  his  constant  wars  were  added  to  what 
was  needed  at  home,  the  total  amount  of  taxes  paid  by  the 
Neapolitans  is  simply  amazing.  It  is  not  surprising  that 
the  first  outbreak  of  the  people  under  Toledo's  rule  was 
occasioned  by  increased  taxation.  It  was  promptly  quelled. 
The  plebeian  leader  was  imprisoned ;  and  when  his  release 
was  demanded,  he  was  hanged  at  evening,  from  a  window 
of  the  Palace  of  Justice,  and  torches  placed  on  each  side  the 
corpse,  that  all  might  see  which  way  rebellion  led.  The 
next  day  the  principal  revolutionists  were  executed,  the 
taxes  were  not  lessened,  and  the  people  submitted ;  but  Don 
Pedro  de  Toledo  was  no  longer  popular. 

An  attempt  to  establish  the  Inquisition  aroused  the 
hatred  and  indignation  of  the  Neapolitans  of  all  classes. 
They  had  submitted  to  a  censorship  of  the  press,  to  the 
extinction  of  the  Academy  of  the  nobles,  to  an  edict 
against  theological  discussions  and  the  reprinting  of  theo- 
logical books  such  as  had  issued  from  their  presses  for 
twenty  years ;  but  when  spies  were  to  be  authorized  and 
the  Spanish  Inquisition  introduced,  —  the  very  name  of 
which  inspired  absolute  terror,  —  the  entire  populace  flew 


64  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

to  arms  as  with  a  common  impulse.  Don  Pedro  rode 
through  the  city  threatening  punishment  to  the  disturbers, 
who  had  heretofore  been  of  the  common  people,  but  were 
now  joined  by  the  nobles  ;  Toledo  summoned  the  Spanish 
infantry  from  Pozzuoli  to  Naples,  and  a  bloody  fray  suc- 
ceeded between  the  soldiers  and  the  people.  When  Don 
Pedro  appeared,  not  a  hand  was  raised  to  salute  him,  and 
he  was  driven  to  a  fury  which  was  not  lessened  when  the 
populace  assembled  at  the  summons  of  the  bells  of  S. 
Lorenzo,  and  resolved  to  obey  Don  Pedro  de  Toledo  no 
longer,  and  to  send  ambassadors  to  the  Emperor.  A 
deputy  was  in  great  danger  of  being  hurled  from  the  top 
of  the  spire  when  he  endeavored  to  dissuade  the  people 
from  sounding  the  bells,  which  might  be  construed  as 
treason ;  they  also  planted  the  imperial  banners  on  the 
belfry,  and  formed  a  procession  which  passed  through  the 
principal  streets,  crying,  "  Union,  union,  in  the  service  of 
God  and  the  Emperor,  and  of  the  town ! "  The  Marquis 
of  Pescara,  still  a  child,  bore  a  crucifix  at  the  head  of  this 
procession,  in  which  all  conditions  of  men  were  mingled ; 
and  any  one  who  would  not  join  it  was  henceforth  suspected 
as  a  traitor. 

Don  Pedro  treated  the  whole  matter  lightly,  and  assured 
the  ambassadors  that  if  they  went  on  account  of  the  Inqui- 
sition only,  he  could  promise  them  that  it  would  not  be 
established ;  he  then  added, "  But  if  you  go  as  my  accusers, 
depart  at  once,  with  the  blessing  of  God."  When  he 
learned  that  they  were  about  to  obey  him,  he  said  jocosely 
to  those  about  him,  "  We  will  henceforth  let  time  run 
merrily,  my  lords,  for  I  have  no  longer  any  care,  since  I 
am  no  more  the  Viceroy  of  Naples." 

In  reality  he  was  most  uneasy,  and  especially  so  because 
the  barriers  between  the  nobles  and  the  people,  always  a 
great  reliance  for  autocrats,  were  being  broken  down.  The 
people,  too,  had  shown  that  they  did  not  mean  rebellion 


CHARLES  V.  AND  PHILIP  H.  65 

against  Charles  V. ;  their  demonstration  was  against  Toledo, 
and  in  opposition  to  the  institution  of  the  dreaded  tribunal ; 
their  war-cries  were  :  "  Spain  and  the  kingdom ;  life  to  the 
Emperor,  death  to  the  Inquisition  !  " 

There  were  now  almost  daily  quarrels  between  the 
Spanish  troops  and  the  citizens,  and  the  condition  of  Naples 
was  most  alarming.  Shops  were  closed,  and  all  business 
suspended ;  courts  were  no  longer  held ;  many  of  (the  prin- 
cipal inhabitants  fled  ;  adventurers  delivered  exciting  ora- 
tions in  the  streets  ;  and  only  by  the  most  heroic  exertions 
of  the  deputies  were  the  people  restrained  from  pointing 
the  heavy  cannon  kept  at  S.  Lorenzo  on  the  Castel  Nuovo, 
from  which  the  artillery  had  opened  on  the  town. 

At  length  one  of  the  ambassadors  to  the  Emperor  re- 
turned, bringing  messages  of  comfort  to  the  Neapolitans. 
The  Emperor  would  pardon  their  offences  if  they  at  once 
laid  down  their  arms,  and  assured  them  that  he  had  never 
intended  to  establish  the  Inquisition  in  their  midst. 

It  was  humiliating  to  the  people  to  submit  anew  to  Don 
Pedro  de  Toledo,  but  it  was  done.  The  viceroy  was  not  too 
exacting,  and  appeared  not  to  know  that  far  fewer  arms 
were  surrendered  at  Castel  Nuovo  than  the  insurgents 
must  have  had:  He  informed  the  courts  that,  save  thirty- 
six  men,  who  were  excluded  from  the  amnesty,  none  would 
be  tried  for  past  offences.  In  the  end  but  one  man  was 
executed ;  the  others  were  warned  and  escaped.  But  the 
result  of  this  insurrection  was  most  disastrous  to  Naples ; 
it  had  endured  but  a  month,  and  in  that  time  two  thousand 
men  had  fallen  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  edifices  had  been 
destroyed.  In  the  midst  of  these  losses  the  Emperor  con- 
firmed the  title  of  "  most  faithful "  to  the  city  of  Naples, 
and  at  the  same  time  fined  it  one  hundred  thousand 
ducats. 

The  visit  of  Charles  Y.  to  Naples  —  in  1535,  three  years 
after  Toledo  had  assumed  his  place  there  —  apparently 

5 


66  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

satisfied  the  Emperor  as  to  the  conduct  of  the  kingdom 
under  his  viceroy.  Charles  complimented  Toledo,  and  told 
him  that  he  did  not  find  him  as  bad  as  he  had  been 
painted ;  and  from  this  time  no  complaints  against  Toledo 
had  weight  with  the  Emperor. 

In  honor  of  this  visit  the  Porta  Capuana  was  made  the 
most  ornamental  gate  of  Naples.  The  statue  of  its  builder, 
Ferdinand  I.  of  Aragon,  was  removed,  and  sculptures  in 
marble,  by  Giovanni  da  Nola,  were  added ;  its  handsome 
round  towers,  of  which  we  have  spoken,  were  found  to  be 
a  worthy  support  for  its  new  ornamentation.  It  was  on 
the  occasion  of  this  visit  that  Charles  admired  the  half- 
finished  Orsini  or  Gravina  Palace,  now  the  General  Post 
and  Telegraph  Office.  To  the  Emperor's  compliments 
Orsini  replied,  "  It  is  your  Majesty's  when  finished  ; "  and 
on  account  of  this  answer  neither  that  duke  nor  his  descen- 
dants attempted  its  completion.  This  edifice  is  of  interest 
because  it  shows  the  condition  of  Neapolitan  architecture 
at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  it  was  begun  as 
a  rival  to  the  celebrated  Palazzo  Sanseverino. 

At  that  period  architecture  was  a  passion  with  the 
wealthy  at  Naples,  and  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  so 
few  works  of  that  era  still  exist,  and  thfese  are  by  no 
means  in  their  first  estate.  Gabriele  d'  Agnolo,  one  of  the 
first  to  introduce  the  classical  revival  into  Naples,  built 
the  Orsini  Palace.  On  the  frieze  the  Duke  had  an  inscrip- 
tion, announcing  that  he  built  the  palace  for  himself,  his 
family,  and  all  his  friends.  These  hospitable  words  have 
disappeared,  and  the  whole  structure  is  much  disfigured  by 
the  most  objectionable  "  modern  improvements." 

Interesting  as  the  life  of  Don  Pedro  de  Toledo  is,  it  can- 
not here  be  given  in  detail.  Charles  V.  knew  that  he 
owed  the  security  of  the  crown  of  Naples  to  his  viceroy, 
as  well  as  the  large  revenues  which  enabled  him  to  prose- 
cute his  designs  in  other  countries ;  and  yet  it  was  through 


The  Porta  Capuana. 


CHARLES  V.  AND  PHILIP  II.  67 

the  bidding  of  the  Emperor  that  Toledo  lost  his  life.  When 
the  Republic  of  Siena  revolted,  Charles  chose  Don  Pedro 
to  command  the  army  sent  for  its  subjection.  At  Leghorn 
the  viceroy  was  seized  with  what  is  now  called  pneumonia  ; 
the  physicians,  unable  to  cope  with  the  disease,  explained 
that  Leghorn,  being  under  the  influence  of  Neptune,  had 
too  severe  a  climate  for  an  inhabitant  of  Pozzuoli,  which 
was  within  the  province  of  Vulcan.  Toledo  was  removed 
to  Pisa,  and  then  to  Florence,  where  he  died,  in  February, 
1553.  His  tomb  is  at  the  back  of  the  high  altar  in  the 
church  of  S.  Giacomo  degli  Spagnuoli,  erected  by  Toledo 
in  1540.  This  tomb  is  called  the  masterpiece  of  Giovanni 
Merliano  da  Nola,  who  evidently  intended  to  make  this 
monument  to  his  patron  as  sumptuous  as  possible.  A 
sarcophagus  rests  on  a  richly  decorated  pedestal,  at  the 
corners  of  which  are  four  graceful  female  figures,  repre- 
senting Justice,  Prudence,  Fortitude,  and  Temperance. 
Three  sides  of  the  sarcophagus  are  filled  with  bas-reliefs, 
representing  the  achievements  of  the  viceroy  in  the  wars 
with  the  Turks;  the  fourth  side  bears  the  inscription. 
Statues  of  Don  Pedro  de  Toledo  and  his  wife,  in  the  atti- 
tude of  prayer,  surmount  the  sarcophagus.  The  whole 
work  is  carefully  and  elaborately  executed,  although  the 
bas-reliefs  are  confused  and  overcrowded ;  and  the  Neapoli- 
tans may  congratulate  themselves  that  it  was  not  removed 
to  Spain,  as  was  at  one  time  intended. 

While  the  love  of  art  had  largely  increased  among  the 
Neapolitans,  the  frequent  changes  and  disturbances  which 
occurred  in  their  government  previous  to  the  reign  of 
Charles  V.,  had  rendered  any  essential  enlargement  or 
improvement  of  the  capital  quite  impossible.  After  1530 
it  grew  rapidly  larger,  gaining,  as  was  estimated,  a  third 
in  thirty  years.  A  large  part  of  its  improvement  was 
accomplished  and  much  more  inaugurated  during  the 
twenty-one  years  when  Toledo  was  viceroy  ;  two  miles  were 


68  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

added  to  the  circumference  of  Naples,  and  the  population 
was  much  increased,  while  the  bustle  and  crowds  in  the 
streets  indicated  industry  and  prosperity. 

It  is  interesting  to  picture  to  ourselves  the  Naples  of  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  trace  the  changes  which 
three  hundred  years  have  made  in  it.  The  Riviera  di 
Chiaja  did  not  exist  until  a  century  later,  and  in  the  time 
of  Toledo  it  was  the  site  of  the  villas  of  noble  and  wealthy 
families.  Embowered  in  vines  and  trees,  surrounded  by 
lovely  gardens,  sometimes  near  the  shore,  again  farther 
back  on  the  points  of  the  hills,  were  these  picturesque 
and  beautiful  homes.  From  them  the  expanse  of  the  blue 
Mediterranean  could  be  seen,  dotted  here  and  there  with 
the  craft  peculiar  to  Southern  seas,  varying  from  the  finest 
galleys  to  the  tiniest  boat  of  the  fisherman  ;  and  Capri 
looming  boldly  in  the  dim  distance,  while  Nisida  nestled 
cosily  near  at  hand.  A  peaceful,  entrancing  scene,  in 
strange  contrast  to  the  noisy  tumult  of  the  city  streets, 
and  to  the  ever  rumbling,  smoking,  threatening  volcano, 
the  oracular  thunder  of  whose  voice  thrills  the  very  soul 
and  almost  suspends  the  breath. 

Motionless  Victor  !  Lord  of  fiery  doom  ! 

On  thy  dark  helmet  waves  thy  smoky  plume  ; 

Wrapt  in  thy  purple  like  a  Syrian  king, 

While  crouches  at  thy  feet  the  shrinking  Spring, 

Thy  fallen  archangel's  throne  befits  thee,  —  thou 

Who  canst  not  bless,  but  curse.     Thy  blasted  brow 

Scowls  with  dull  eye  of  hate  that  nightly  broods 

On  dire  events  in  thy  drear  solitudes. 

Tireless  thou  burnest  on  from  age  to  age. 

No  winter's  rains,  though  yearly  they  assuage 

Thy  hot  cheeks,  where  the  lava  tear-drops  run 

Down  the  black  furrows,  —  no  joy-giving  sun 

Of  balmy  spring  clothing  thy  ruggedness 

With  colors  of  all  depth  and  tenderness,  — 

No  clouds  of  summer  smiling  on  thy  sleep,  — 

No  autumn  vintage  round  thy  fire-cloven  steep,  — 


CHARLES  V.  AND  PHILIP  II.  69 

Have  charmed  away  the  awful  mystery 

That  burns  within  a  heart  no  eye  can  see. 

In  the  bright  day  thou  mak'st  the  blue  heavens  dun, 

Blotting  with  blasphemous  smoke  the  blessed  sun. 

No  calmest  starlit  night  can  still  thy  curse 

Breathed  upward  through  the  silent  universe. 

Christopher  Pearse  Cranch. 

On  the  Mergellina,  at  the  western  end  of  the  present 
Chiaja,  the  fishermen  then  drew  their  boats  on  shore  and 
plied  their  trade,  while  the  nobles  rode  past  in  richly 
decorated,  clumsy  coaches,  or  were  more  advantageously 
seen  curvetting  their  gayly  caparisoned  horses. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  wave-washed  strand  extended 
from  the  present  Piazza  Umberto  to  the  Largo  della  Vit- 
toria,  where  solid  breastworks  and  rock-built  ramparts 
now  repel  the  sea,  and  the  Via  Carracciolo  borders  the 
gardens  of  the  Villa  Nazionale.  This  strand  was  not  even 
levelled,  nor  a  tree  planted  there  for  a  century  and  a  half 
after  the  great  viceroy  succumbed  to  the  malign  influence 
of  Neptune.  Comparing  the  then  and  now,  and  writing 
in  the  middle  of  our  century,  De  Reumont  says  :  — 

"  Who  thinks  now,  when  he  sees  the  procession  of  elegant 
equipages  rolling  along  upon  the  smooth  lava  pavement  of  the 
Chiaja,  —  when  he  sees  hundreds  of  horsemen  hastening  on  to 
the  iron  trellis  of  the  villa,  groups  of  pedestrians  of  high 
station,  mixed  with  people  of  lower  rank,  filling  the  alleys, 
whilst  the  fisher-boys,  not  even  half  clad,  go  out  upon  the 
rocks  by  the  foundations  of  the  ramparts,  in  quest  of  their 
small  earnings,  —  who  now  thinks  of  the  times  when,  exposed 
to  the  attacks  of  the  barbarians,  and  for  a  protection  against 
the  pirates  of  Algiers  and  Tunis,  the  forts  already  referred 
to  were  built,  and  when  —  in  the  seventeenth  century — the 
Carraccioli  of  Torella  sought  to  add  to  the  strength  of  their 
dwelling  by  the  tower  which  since  formed  the  angle  of  the 
palace  of  the  Count  of  Syracuse?" 


70  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

This  last  palace  was  the  first  one  erected  on  the  present 
Chiaja,  and  was  built  by  a  distinguished  general  of  Charles 
V.,  in  1535 ;  so  distant  was  it  from  the  defences  of  the 
city  that  a  fortress  of  its  own  was  necessary  to  protect  it 
from  pirates,  —  a  condition  of  things  difficult  to  realize 
when  in  the  midst  of  the  seething  mass  of  humanity  one 
sees  there  to-day.  East  of  the  Vittoria  to  the  Strada  Santa 
Lucia,  all  was  a  dreary,  waste  ;  masses  of  tufa  covered  the 
Pizzofalcone,  and  remained  undisturbed  until,  early  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  Andrea  Carafa  there  built  a  palace  on 
one  of  the  finest  and  most  commanding  sites  in  all  Italy, 
which  was  later  converted  into  barracks  and  public  offices. 
The  Ponte  di  Chiaja  was  not  constructed  until  1634  ;  and 
until  then  Pizzofalcone  and  the  hill  of  S.  Elmo  were 
separated  by  a  great  gulf. 

Santa  Lucia  was  a  narrow,  dirty  street ;  and  the  space 
now  filled  by  the  broad  quay,  —  constructed  since  1846, — 
the  terrace  below  and  the  steps  leading  to  it,  was  covered 
with  wretched  huts  which  were  taken  away  by  Cardinal 
Borgia.  On  this  terrace  is  the  fountain  decorated  with 
sea-gods  and  nymphs,  after  the  design  of  Giovanni  da 
Nola,  which  the  fish-dealers  erected  at  their  own  expense. 
Here  on  summer  evenings,  above  all  on  Sundays,  a  dense 
crowd  gathers,  and  affords  an  interesting  study  of  Nea- 
politan life,  —  all  along  the  seaside  of  Santa  Lucia  are 
the  dealers  in  frutti  di  mare,  as  the  Neapolitans  pictu- 
resquely term  the  crabs,  oysters,  sea-urchins,  and  other 
small  objects  taken  from  the  sea,  which  they  eat  with 
avidity. 

North  from  Santa  Lucia  is  the  Strada  del  Gigante,  a  work 
of  Olivarez  at  the  very  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  On 
the  eastern  side  of  the  city  from  the  Castel  dell'  Ovo  to  the 
Castel  del  Carmine,  the  changes  have  been  too  many  to 
be  traced  except  in  an  exhaustive  topographical  sketch. 
Again  we  quote  De  Reumont :  — 


CHAELES  V.  AND  PHILIP  II.  71 

"  The  arsenal,  and  the  sea  front  of  the  palace,  harbor,  and 
mole,  custom-house,  and  reservoir,  have  all  been  so  incessantly 
metamorphosed,  even  so  late  as  in  our  time,  that  a  contemporary 
of  Masaniello  and  Salvator  Rosa  could  here  scarcely  find  his 
way  aright,  did  not  the  gray  towers  of  the  Castel  Nuovo,  which 
give  the  lie  to  the  name  of  the  Angevin  fortress,  serve  him  as 
a  landmark.  Even  the  Castel  Nuovo,  however,  has  been  abun- 
dantly changed  in  form  during  the  past  century  by  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  bastions,  by  which  Charles  III.  fortified  it 
towards  the  arsenal,  after  he  had  effected  a  breach  at  the  siege 
of  the  year  1734,  and  had  taken  the  fortress.  Wars  and  con- 
flagrations had  made  much  alteration  in  the  course  of  time 
upon  this  fortress  ;  and  any  one  will  discover  at  a  glance  that 
the  outer  line  of  wall  in  the  Largo  di  Castello  —  a  square  equally 
hard  to  recognize  —  is  of  modern  origin.  The  Marinella,  the 
southern  quay  along  the  old  town  wall  from  the  harbor  up  to 
the  Carmine,  has  possibly  preserved  its  former  appearance  more 
than  any  other  part  of  the  sea  front,  although  here  also  Charles 
III.,  of  whose  name  one  is  reminded  almost  at  each  step,  exe- 
cuted various  great  works  for  the  regulation  of  the  shore,  and 
the  widening  of  the  street,  which,  ever  crowded  with  people, 
has  become,  since  the  introduction  of  railroads,  one  of  the  most 
busy  of  the  town." 

One  who  tries  to  trace  old  landmarks  in  the  interior  of 
the  city  soon  finds  himself  in  need  of  some  thread  like  that 
of  Ariadne  to  guide  him  in  the  perplexing  labyrinth.  The 
last  remnants  of  the  castle  which  Toledo  built  to  the  west 
of  the  Castel  Nuovo,  in  which  Charles  V.  resided,  disap- 
peared a  half-century  ago;  but  the  Strada  Toledo  —  now 
Via  Roma  gi&  Toledo  —  remains  a  notable  monument  to 
this  viceroy,  although  it  has  undergone  such  changes  from 
time  to  time  as  would  render  it  a  terra  incognita  to  Don 
Pedro  himself  could  he  now  walk  there. 

Emerging  from  the  Piazza  del  Plebiscite,  and  extended 
by  the  Strada  S.  Teresa  degli  Scalzi  and  the  Strada  Nuova 
di  Capodimonte,  about  two  miles  in  length,  it  almost  bisects 


72  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

the  city  from  north  to  south.  The  streets  leading  from 
it  on  the  east  extend  to  the  railway  stations,  the  harbor, 
the  botanical  gardens,  the  great  Reclusorio,  or  Poorhouse, 
the  cemeteries,  and  many  other  important  points.  On  the 
west  there  is  a  network  of  streets  and  gradoni,  —  as  the 
lanes  with  steps  are  called,  —  numbers  of  which  ascend 
to  the  Corso  Emmanuele  and  the  Castel  S.  Elmo.  In  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  the  Toledo  was 
affected  as  a  place  of  residence  by  noble  and  wealthy 
families,  and  many  fine  edifices  were  erected  here  ;  but  in 
the  present  day  this  street,  sometimes  called  the  noisiest 
in  Europe,  is  the  main  business  artery  of  Naples,  and  a 
stirring  place  at  all  hours  of  day  and  night,  —  a  "paradise 
of  pickpockets." 

When  first  I  saw  it,  thirty  years  ago,  the  description  of 
Forsyth  was  accurate :  — 

"  Naples,  in  its  interior,  has  no  parallel  on  earth.  The  crowd 
of  London  is  uniform  and  intelligible ;  it  is  a  double  line  in 
quick  motion ;  it  is  the  crowd  of  business.  The  crowd  of 
Naples  consists  in  a  general  tide  rolling  up  and  down,  and  in 
the  middle  of  this  tide  a  hundred  eddies  of  men.  Here  you 
are  swept  on  by  the  current ;  there  you  are  wheeled  round  by 
the  vortex.  A  diversity  of  trades  disputes  the  street  with  you. 
You  are  stopped  by  a  carpenter's  bench,  you  are  lost  among 
shoemakers'  stools,  —  you  dash  behind  the  pots  of  a  macaroni 
stall,  and  you  escape  behind  a  lazzarone's  night-basket.  In 
this  region  of  caricature  every  bargain  sounds  like  a  battle. 
The  popular  exhibitions  are  full  of  the  grotesque,  and  some 
of  their  church  processions  would  frighten  a  war-horse." 

On  each  of  the  six  successive  visits  that  I  have  made  to 
Naples  I  have  thought  that  the  confusion  and  hurly-burly 
of  the  whole  city  were  modified  at  times,  and  within  the 
last  decade  one  moves  about  with  much  less  inconvenience 
than  formerly ;  but  the  Toledo  could  not  be  the  Toledo,  did 
it  not  resound  with  the  unearthly  cries  of  every  sort  of 


CHARLES  V.  AND  PHILIP  II.  73 

street-vendor,  while  the  lustrini  —  shoe-blacks  —  keep  up 
their  knocking  to  attract  attention.  The  whole  population 
seems  to  live  out  of  doors ;  letters  are  written  by  scribes  in 
the  street ;  iced  water  and  cool  lemonade  are  offered  at  every 
turn,  while  the  fumes  of  charcoal  constantly  arise,  mingled 
with  the  odor  of  roasting  chestnuts  and  the  smell  of  frying 
sausages.  When  the  lamps  are  lighted  and  the  shouts  of 
the  news-boys  are  added  to  the  other  cries,  it  is  Pande- 
monium itself.  Later,  the  Trovatori  appear  with  their 
lanterns,  hunting  for  lost  articles,  large  or  small,  not  even 
disdaining  cigar-ends ;  and  one  and  all  of  these  Neapoli- 
tans consider  the  strangers  in  their  midst  as  providentially 
provided  for  them  to  importune  and  cheat  to  the  extent  of 
their  ability.  Alexandre  Dumas  said  that,  "  for  the  noble, 
the  Toledo  was  a  promenade ;  for  the  merchant,  a  bazaar ; 
for  the  lazzaroni,  a  dwelling-place." 

Many  of  the  lesser  improvements  —  so-called  —  of  Don 
Pedro  de  Toledo  were  most  important.  He  paved  the 
streets  for  the  first  time,  and  cleared  away  corners  and 
angles  which  interfered  with  cleanliness  and  ventilation. 
He  drained  swamps  near  Naples,  and  converted  them  into 
profitable  fields;  and  not  the  least  of  his  labors,  from 
whicli  great  benefits  resulted,  was  the  wholesale  destruction 
of  ancient  covered  passages  and  porticos,  which  were  not 
only  filthy,  disease-producing  labyrinths,  but  also  afforded 
concealment  to  thieves  and  cut-throats,  who  made  them 
places  of  terror  by  day,  and  emerged  by  night  to  commit 
all  sorts  of  grievous  crimes. 

Toledo  also  built  separate  edifices  here  and  there  ;  re- 
stored the  subterranean  aqueduct,  and  erected  a  fountain 
with  a  statue  of  Atlas  by  Giovanni  da  Nola,  in  the  heart 
of  the  old  town,  where  it  is  still  difficult  to  thread  one's 
way,  especially  on  market  days.  "While  this  viceroy  con- 
ferred all  these  benefits  on  Naples,  he  was  not  unmindful 
of  the  surrounding  districts.  He  widened  and  paved  the 


74  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Grotto  of  Posilipo,  and  provided  it  with  air-shafts,  so  that, 
for  the  first  time,  it  was  possible  to  pass  through  it  without 
a  light  in  the  daytime. 

At  Pozzuoli,  after  the  terror  had  suhsided  which  was 
excited  by  the  upheaval  of  Monte  Nuovo  in  1538,  he 
endeavored  to  induce  the  inhabitants  to  return.  He  erected 
a  palatial  fortress,  and  employed  the  pupils  of  Raphael 
in  its  decoration,  the  frescos  imitating  those  which  had 
recently  been  discovered  in  some  ancient  tombs. 

Unfortunately,  there  are  associations  of  another  sort  con- 
nected with  the  memory  of  Don  Pedro  de  Toledo.  That 
he  completed  the  ruin  of  Baiae  by  levelling  all  that  remained 
of  the  Roman  temples  and  villas,  as  well  as  the  churches 
and  dwellings  of  more  modern  days,  in  order  to  get  mate- 
rial for  the  grand,  massive  castle  which  he  there  erected, 
is  unpardonable  from  the  standpoint  of  the  antiquarian  and 
barbarous  to  every  artistic  sense.  But  his  cruelties  — 
especially  in  the  persecution  of  the  Protestants  in  Calabria 
—  were  so  horrible  as  to  make  him  hateful,  even  now, 
when  more  than  three  centuries  have  rolled  out  a  perspec- 
tive in  which  many  noble  deeds  of  the  same  period  are  quite 
imperceptible. 

"  The  evil  that  men.  do  lives  after  them, 
The  good  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones." 

At  the  desire  of  the  Pope,  Toledo  marched  in  person 
with  a  special  commission  from  the  Inquisition,  and  at  S. 
Sisto,  La  Guardia,  and  Cosenza  perpetrated  such  atrocities 
as  can  scarcely  be  named.  Neither  women  nor  children 
were  spared  the  most  shocking  tortures  ;  and  one  man, 
who  was  covered  with  pitch  and  burned  in  the  square  of 
Cosenza,  may  even  be  said  to  have  been  more  mercifully 
murdered  than  many  others  who  suffered  such  cunning 
tortures  as  fiends  only  could  devise. 

But  Toledo  accomplished  the  work  that  his  sovereign 
expected  of  him,  and  that  he  had  set  himself  to  do ;  he 


CHARLES  V.  AND  PHILIP  II.  75 

left  Naples  a  Spanish  province,  completely  under  the  iron 
rule  of  Spanish  policy.  The  important  posts  in  fortresses 
and  castles  were  held  by  Spaniards ;  the  reforms  of  the 
government  projected  by  Ferdinand  were  carried  to  com- 
pletion by  Toledo  ;  in  fact,  at  the  death  of  the  great  vice- 
roy, Charles  Y.  could  congratulate  himself  that  his  rule 
over  the  Neapolitans  was  firmly  established,  and  in  good 
faith  he  was  bound  to  admit  that  this  result  had  been 
brought  about  by  the  wise  and  faithful  service  of  Don 
Pedro  de  Toledo. 

Fine  examples  of  mediaeval,  castellated,  domestic  archi- 
tecture exist  here  and  there  in  Neapolitan  territory,  as  in 
the  castles  of  Melfi,  Catanzaro,  Lucera,  and  many  other 
places ;  and  much  of  intense  interest  to  the  antiquarian 
may  be  learned  of  Neapolitan  architecture  from  the  tenth 
to  the  fifteenth  century.  But  in  the  city  of  Naples  little 
remains  of  purely  mediaeval  construction  ;  here  and  there 
fragments  of  it  are  seen,  but  so  changed  and  modified  that 
the  merest  traces  of  its  aspect  survive,  and  we  can  no  better 
imagine  how  the  entire  edifices  appeared,  than  we  can  say 
what  was  the  bearing  of  the  living  woman  who  was  the 
model  for  the  Venus  whose  torso  alone  remains  in  the 
Museo  Borbonico. 

The  public  edifices  of  modern  times  have  been  more  essen- 
tially and  frequently  changed  in  Naples  than  in  any  other 
Italian  city.  The  reasons  for  this  are  not  far  to  seek. 
Earthquakes  have  made  it  necessary  to  level  and  rebuild,  and 
the  succession  of  opposing  dynasties  has  left  the  churches 
and  edifices  of  a  previous  monarch  to  the  courtesy  of  the 
succeeding  one.  The  Norman,  Hohenstauffen,  Angevine, 
Aragonese,  and  Spaniard  has,  each  in  turn,  desired  to  leave 
his  characteristic  impress  on  the  architecture  of  the  city 
and  territory  of  Naples.  Thus,  for  example,  has  the  mag- 
nificent Gothic  of  the  Angevine  been  debased  by  the  taste- 
less ornamentation  of  a  later  period,  and  radical  changes 


76  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

made  in  the  earlier  edifices  which  nature  and  man  hare 
permitted  to  survive  the  ages. 

It  is  also  true  that  the  architects  of  the  finest  early  edi- 
fices were  not  Neapolitans.  From  the  building  of  the  Castel 
dell'  Ovo,  designed  by  the  Venetian  Buono  for  William  I. 
in  1154,  to  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  facts  we  have  —  with  few  exceptions  —  are  connected 
with  architects  who  'were  often  Italians,  but  not  Neapoli- 
tans. Masuccio  I.  is  far  too  mythical  to  be  treated  seri- 
ously, and  Masuccio  II.  cannot  be  proved  to  be  the  author 
of  much  that  is  attributed  to  him,  while  some  of  the  works 
called  his  are  known  to  have  been  executed  by  other  artists. 
In  fact,  the  Masuccii  are  not  mentioned  in  reliable  docu- 
ments of  their  time ;  and  their  fame  rests  on  the  vaguest 
traditions  and  the  boldest  assertions,  alike  lacking  in  proof. 
Andrea  Ciccione  is  frequently  named  as  a  Neapolitan  archi- 
tect and  sculptor  in  the  annals  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
His  remaining  work  stamps  him  as  of  mediocre  talent,  and 
a  poor  imitator  of  the  defects,  rather  than  the  virtues  of 
his  predecessors.  In  fact,  should  one  pass  all  Neapolitan 
architects  in  review,  it  must  finally  be  said  that  the  good 
work  done  in  the  Neapolitan  peninsula  was  by  artists  not 
native  to  its  soil. 

In  sculpture  the  finest  very  early  works  are  seen  in 
cathedrals  outside  of  Naples  —  as  in  that  of  Ravello,  for 
example,  where  the  magnificent  Ambo,  presented  in  1272, 
was  made  by  Nicolo  of  Foggia.  The  fine  bronze  gates 
here  and  elsewhere  are  of  Byzantine  origin ;  and,  in  fact, 
it  is  so  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  Italian  and 
Byzantine  artists  of  the  Middle  Ages  that  we  have  no  space 
to  do  it  here.  Coming  down  to  a  time  of  which  we  have 
better  knowledge,  we  have  a  list  of  names  of  sculptors,  such 
as  Antonio  di  Domenico,  Bamboccio,  Agnolo  Aniello  Fiore, 
and  some  others  whose  names  we  will  omit  since  they  are 
almost  as  unreal  as  the  Masuccii.  They  preceded  Giovanni 


The  Castel  dell'  Ovo. 


i 


CHARLES  V.  AND  PHILIP  II.  77 

Merliano  da  Nola,  whose  works  are  still  seen  in  the  churches 
and  palaces  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
in  the  streets  of  Naples,  in  such  profusion  that  each  visitor 
to  that  city  may  make  his  own  estimate  of  this  fruitful 
artist.  He  holds  the  leading  place  among  Neapolitan  sculp- 
tors of  his  own  century  and  those  immediately  following. 
Many  critics  agree  with  De  Reumont  when  he  says  :  — 

"  Uniting  the  Tuscan  and  domestic  elements  of  the  Quattro- 
cento with  the  yet  more  awakening  study  of  the  antique,  Gio- 
vanni Merliano  created  for  himself  a  style  which  assigns  to 
him  ...  an  independent,  separate  position  in  the  history  of 
art,  whilst  a  whole  active  and  fruitful  school  has  found  in  him 
its  origin  and  starting-point.  Of  a  religious  mind,  in  the  midst 
of  the  sympathies  of  the  antique  ;  full  of  freedom  in  touch,  but 
repudiating  caprice  ;  with  peculiar  characteristics,  although,  in 
conformity  with  the  manners  of  the  times,  devoted  to  the  use 
of  allegory ;  at  once  powerful  and  tender ;  true  in  the  expres- 
sions of  the  affections  ;  and  equally  removed  from  flatness  and 
coldness  as  from  affectation  and  extravagance ;  with  a  refined 
perception  of  the  beautiful,  which  also,  with  the  approach  to 
elegance,  does  not  forget  simplicity ;  a  correct  draughtsman ; 
retreating  before  no  difficulty,  but  not  seeking  out  difficulties 
from  caprice  or  vainglory ;  indefatigably  active  and  enter- 
prising, as  his  numberless  achievements  in  Naples  testify : 
such  is  Giovanni  da  Nola.  By  foreigners  he  is  not  known  as 
he  deserves  to  be,  because  the  Neapolitan  school,  especially  in 
foreign  lands,  is  not  sufficiently  esteemed." 

It  is  not  possible  here  even  to  name  all  his  works ;  but 
aside  from  those  that  are  most  in  evidence,  and  among  the 
most  interesting,  are  the  small  monument  in  S.  Chiara 
to  Antonia  Gaudino,  who  died  on  the  day  appointed  for  her 
wedding ;  the  tomb  of  the  child,  Andrea  Bonifacio,  in  S. 
Severino ;  and,  better  than  these,  the  Tomb  of  the  Three 
Brothers  in  the  last-named  church.  In  his  "  Italian  Sculp- 
tors," Perkins  says :  — 


78  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

"  The  monuments  of  three  brothers  .  .  .  may  be  taken  as 
perhaps  the  best  examples  of  Merliano's  style.  Few  stories 
are  more  tragical  than  that  of  lacopo,  Ascanio,  and  Sigismund, 
the  '  virtuous,  valorous,  and  handsome '  sons  of  Ugo  San 
Severino,  Conte  della  Saponara,  and  his  '  prudent  and  pious ' 
wife,  Ippolita  de'  Monti.  Scandalized  by  the  shameless  in- 
trigues of  Donna  Lincia,  the  wife  of  her  husband's  brother 
Geronimo,  Donna  Ippolita  endeavored,  but  without  success, 
to  open  his  eyes.  The  evil  feeling  thus  engendered  between 
them  was  fanned  into  a  flame  by  Donna  Lincia,  who,  furious  at 
the  death  of  one  of  her  lovers,  a  servant  of  the  three  brothers, 
persuaded  Don  Geronimo  to  compass  the  death  of  his  nephews 
by  means  of  two  Sicilian  servants.  The  fatal  deed  was  accom- 
plished after  a  hunting-party,  when  the  unsuspicious  victims, 
having  stopped  to  refresh  themselves,  drank  poison  in  their 
wine,  and,  unable  to  obtain  relief,  died  soon  after  reaching 
home.  Their  unhappy  parents  sought  to  allay  their  grief 
by  the  celebration  of  sumptuous  funeral  rites,  in  which  all 
the  nobles  of  the  city  took  part.  Count  Ugo,  it  is  said,  soon 
after  died  mad,  but  Donna  Ippolita  survived  him  for  many 
years." 

Geronimo  and  his  wife  were  imprisoned  at  Castel  Nnovo 
and  condemned  to  death,  but  were  eventually  liberated, 
through  the  entreaties  of  their  daughter  Maria,  who  inter- 
ceded for  them  with  Isabella  of  Anjou.  Perkins  further 
says  :  — 

"  The  one  striking  feature  of  the  monument  is  in  the  life-size 
statues  seated  upon  the  sarcophagus.  In  each  the  head  is 
thrown  back,  and  the  limbs  contracted  as  if  by  pain,  not  vio- 
lently, but  enough  to  hint  at  the  cause  of  their  approaching 
death.  The  architecture  is  late  Renaissance,  and  the  bas- 
reliefs  represent  the  Madonna  adored  by  angels ;  God  the 
Father  in  a  glory  of  cherubim,  worshipped  by  Enoch  and  Elias ; 
Christ  with  seraphs  and  angels ;  and  several  saints.  Though 
very  mediocre,  they  are  among  the  best  of  Merliano's  bas-reliefs, 
which  are  generally  in  an  ultra-picturesque  style." 


CHARLES  V.  AND  PHILIP  II.  79 

Girolamo  Santa  Croce  surpassed  Merliano  in  technical 
qualities.  His  best  work  is  the  tomb  of  the  poet  Sannazzaro, 
in  S.  Maria  del  Parto.  It  is,  however,  uncertain  as  to 
what  part  of  it  was  finished  when  he  died,  and  Montorsoli 
completed  it.  A  few  later  sculptors  weakly  followed  in 
the  footsteps  of  Merliano,  and  at  the  end  of  their  century 
Neapolitan  sculpture  had  almost  expired. 

So  much  uncertainty  and  tradition  are  mingled  with  the 
stories  of  the  earliest  Neapolitan  painters  that  one  scarcely 
dares  to  assert  anything  as  positively  true  concerning  them. 
The  origin  and  history  of  Antonio  Solario,  known  as  Lo 
Zingaro,  are  enveloped  in  mystery.  That  his  art  was  a 
result  of  the  deeply  religious  feeling  of  the  Trecento,  modi- 
fied by  the  more  realistic  elements  of  the  Flemish  school, 
cannot  be  doubted  ;  but  little  can  be  confidently  asserted 
of  his  pictures,  since  the  principal  works  attributed  to  him 
are  either  so  badly  restored  that  they  afford  no  satisfac- 
tion, or  —  as  in  the  case  of  the  Madonna  in  the  Museum, 
already  described  —  are  attributed  to  other  masters. 

In  short,  except  one  writes  at  length,  stating  the  argu- 
ments for  and  against  the  artists  to  whom  pictures  are 
attributed,  it  is  impossible  to  speak  of  Neapolitan  painting 
properly.  Andrea  di  Salerno,  or  Sabbatini,  who  died  in 
1545,  was  the  founder  of  the  modern  Neapolitan  school, 
and  after  being  one  of  the  favorite  pupils  of  Raphael  at 
Rome,  he  executed  numerous  works,  both  in  fresco  and  in 
oils,  at  Naples.  Few  of  these  remain,  but  they  are  suffi- 
cient to  show  that  he  was  far  superior  to  his  pupils  and 
followers  who  degenerated  into  an  insipidity  of  manner 
which  entitles  them  to  no  consideration,  and  not  until  the 
seventeenth  century  was  new  life  infused  into  Neapolitan 
painting. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Toledo,  Charles  V.  retired  to 
the  monastery  of  Yuste,  and  his  son,  Philip  II.,  reigned  in 
his  stead.  During  forty-four  years  this  king  had  eight 


80  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

viceroys  and  two  lieutenants  in  Naples,  no  one  of  whom 
remained  five  entire  years.  We  shall  not  rehearse  the 
reasons  for  these  changes,  nor  the  special  acts  of  these 
officials  in  detail.  So  much  had  been  accomplished  under 
Toledo,  that  in  a  certain  sense  the  responsibilities  of  the 
viceroys  were  much  lessened,  —  especially  as  the  Consejo  de 
Italia,  at  Madrid,  for  the  oversight  of  Spanish  interests  in 
Italy,  actually  governed  the  Italian  provinces.  The  vice- 
roy and  the  Consiglio  Colaterale  at  Naples  simply  executed 
the  orders  received  from  the  Spanish  capital.  When  the 
viceroy  was  a  man  of  great  ability,  he  sometimes  changed 
this  condition  of  things  ;  but,  as  a  rule,  he  and  his  council 
of  five  —  the  majority  being  Spaniards  —  were  guided  by 
the  higher  authority  of  the  council  at  Madrid. 

Even  so,  the  viceroy  at  Naples  had  immense  power,  since 
the  ministers  of  the  principal  departments  were  Spaniards, 
and  at  the  palace  of  the  viceroy  the  offices  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice,  finance,  and  war  were  centred.  Thus,  so 
far  as  the  Neapolitans  were  concerned,  the  whole  govern- 
ment was  concentrated  in  the  viceroy,  no  matter  who 
directed  his  policy. 

The  reign  of  Philip  II.  was  a  dark  epoch  in  the  history 
of  Naples.  All  sorts  of  abuses  were  practised.  The  offices 
conferred  by  the  king  were  dependent  upon  the  recommen- 
dation of  the  viceroy,  and  were  sold  by  him.  This  led  to 
the  most  cruel  oppression.  The  taxes  were  enormous,  as 
the  men  who  bought  offices  wrung  the  price  of  them  from 
their  vassals ;  houses  were  frequently  unroofed,  and  the 
beams  sold  to  pay  the  taxes.  The  people,  driven  to  despair, 
became  robbers  and  murderers ;  and  although  the  number 
of  executions  and  severe  punishments  was  greater  than  in 
Spain  and  the  rest  of  Italy  combined,  yet  the  crimes  were 
not  lessened. 

The  cruelties  practised  by  the  nobles  on  their  own 
estates  made  them  seem  to  be  all  powerful,  but  the  severity 


CHARLES  V.    AND  PHILIP  II.  81 

shown  them  in  matters  that  came  within  the  control  of 
the  viceroy  gave  them  the  aspect  of  slaves.  Lippomano, 
sent  from  Venice  on  a  mission  to  Naples  in  1575,  says  :  — 

"  In  more  important  concerns,  especially  when  the  matter 
comes  before  the  viceroy,  justice  is  well  administered,  par- 
ticularly when  there  is  question  of  the  nobles  seeking  to  oppress 
their  inferiors.  Then  their  privileges  do  not  help  marquises, 
dukes,  and  princes:  they  -are  imprisoned  for  debt;  and  in 
criminal  cases  the  torture  is  applied  to  them  with  more  severity 
than  it  would  be  to  their  inferiors.  The  reason  of  it  is  this : 
that  the  endeavor  is  to  degrade  the  nobility,  and  set  an  example 
to  others  ;  and  also  that,  in  the  case  of  law  proceedings  against 
the  nobles,  a  rich  harvest  is  brought  into  the  treasury  of  the 
king,  the  viceroy,  and  the  officers ;  but  the  world  believes  that 
justice  is  the  same  at  Naples  for  great  and  small.  A  still 
greater  evil  is  the  many  imprisonments  that  take  place,  from 
worldly  favor  and  worldly  motives,  which  could  not  happen 
if  only  authentic  information  was  attended  to.  For  the  smallest 
debts  tardy  payers  are  imprisoned,  by  which  the  tribunal  always 
gains  ten  per  cent.  No  asylum  is  of  any  use,  as  little  so  as  in 
criminal  cases." 

In  military  affairs  Naples  was  singularly  oppressed. 
The  wars  to  which  she  was  forced  to  contribute  money 
and  soldiers  had,  with  very  rare  exceptions,  no  bearing  on 
her  interests.  The  Neapolitans,  commanded  by  their  own 
leaders,  were  sent  to  fight  in  all  parts  of  the  great  territory 
of  Spain,  while  Naples  was  occupied  by  foreign  troops. 
The  soldiers  when  sent  out  of  the  kingdom  were  often  in 
a  frightful  condition,  as  may  be  seen  from  this  report  by  a 
Tuscan  agent  in  Naples :  — 

"  Six  companies  of  soldiers  embarked  in  so  pitiful  a  condi- 
tion that,  before  they  get  to  Genoa  or  Gaeta,  they  will  most  of 
them  be  thrown  into  the  sea,  corpses.  .  .  .  One  was,  if  I  may 
be  allowed  to  say  it,  without  a  shirt,  another  without  shoes ; 
for  they  had  sold  everything  to  appease  their  hunger.  Many 

6 


82  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

had  fallen  away  to  such  a  degree  that,  instead  of  wearing  their 
rifles  and  swords  at  their  side,  they  were  obliged  to  use  them  as 
supports." 

The  quarrels  between  Philip  and  Paul  IV.,  a  Neapolitan, 
who  hated  the  Spaniards  and  desired  to  see  the  French 
again  in  Naples,  encouraged  the  Duke  of  Guise  to  attempt 
its  re-conquest  in  1557  ;  but  the  Duke  of  Alva  made  his 
success  impossible,  and  the  story  of  the  whole  affair  re- 
sembles that  of  another  famous  Frenchman  who,  with 
forty  thousand  men, "  marched  up  a  hill,  and  then  marched 
down  again."  The  results  at  S.  Quentin  and  Gravelines 
compelled  the  French  to  make  a  treaty  with  Philip  II., 
and  to  disturb  Naples  no  more. 

The  religious  questions  and  differences  which  distracted 
Naples  during  the  reign  of  Philip,  constantly  agitated  the 
people ;  and  although  cardinal  legates  were  sent  from  Rome 
to  Naples,  and  a  resident  nuncio  was  appointed  for  the 
latter  city,  and  Neapolitan  ambassadors  were  again  and 
again  in  conclave  with  the  Pope,  no  agreement  resulted. 
But  the  religious  houses  at  Naples  were  constantly  increas- 
ing and  becoming  more  firmly  established.  The  Domini- 
cans, Camaldolesi,  Capuchins,  and  Servites,  all  of  the  older 
orders,  attained  a  firmer  footing ;  while  the  Theatines, 
founded  by  Gian  Pietro  Carafa  before  he  became  Paul  IV., 
the  Jesuits,  the  bare-footed  Carmelites,  the  Theresenians, 
the  Fratelli  della  Carita,  the  Sommayli,and  the  Oratorians, 
all  had  their  churches,  monasteries,  and  other  institutions 
in  Naples. 

Naturally  the  personal  character  of  the  viceroy  had  its 
influence.  We  have  seen  that  under  Toledo  no  attention 
was  given  to  science  and  letters,  and  this  is  also  true  under 
the  viceroys  of  Philip  II.  Their  chief  aim  was  the  increase 
of  their  revenues,  which  during  the  second  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century  amounted  to  30,000  ducats  a  year.  In 
addition  to  their  legitimate  dues  they  averaged  as  much 


CHARLES  V.  AND  PHILIP  IL  83 

more  from  the  sale  of  offices  and  presents;  and  it  may 
well  be  surmised  that  a  portion  of  their  enormous  charges 
for  the  so-called  "  secret  expenses  "  found  its  way  into  the 
pocket  of  the  viceroy.  We  can  see  the  force  of  the  words 
of  the  elder  Olivarez :  "  One  ought  not  to  wish  to  be  Vice- 
roy of  Naples,  to  avoid  the  pain  that  one  should  feel  at 
leaving  it." 

Under  Philip  II.,  the  Mole  at  Naples  was  improved  ;  the 
new  arsenal  erected  and  the  barrack  built  which  now,  after 
several  transformations,  is  the  National  Museum,  or  Museo 
Borbonico;  the  Strada  di  Chiaja  was  begun,  and  a  new 
road  constructed  from  Fuorigrotta  to  Pozzuoli.  Slight 
changes  and  small  improvement  when  compared  with  those 
of  the  preceding  reign ! 

Philip  was  devoted  to  the  idea  of  founding  a  universal 
Christian  monarchy.  He  was  ambitious  of  controlling 
England  and  ruling  France  ;  he  alleged  his  claims  as  heir 
to  Burgundy  and  Provence ;  he  coveted  the  North  of  Europe, 
and  constantly  endeavored  to  repulse  the  Turk  from  its 
eastern  and  southern  coasts ;  the  acknowledged  Spanish 
monarchy  which  he  desired  to  rule  absolutely,  was  com- 
posed of  such  conflicting  elements  as  could  never  be  peace- 
fully united ;  Naples,  Palermo,  Cagliari,  Mexico,  Lima, 
Aragon,  Catalonia,  and  Valencia  were  under  his  viceroys ; 
Lombardy,  the  Netherlands,  and  Franche-Comt6  were  ruled 
by  his  governors.  Under  such  conditions  it  is  not  strange 
that  he  did  nothing  well ;  that  no  portion  of  his  domain 
prospered  under  his  care,  and  that  the  provinces  were 
reduced  to  beggary.  In  some  of  them,  whole  villages  were 
actually  deserted;  the  fields  were  uncultivated,  and  the 
population  largely  decreased.  In  the  midst  of  such  condi- 
tions it  is  not  difficult  to  comprehend  the  violent  hatred 
of  the  Neapolitans  for  their  Spanish  masters. 

Philip  II.  did  not  visit  Naples,  and  the  most  important 
memento  of  him  existing  there  is  his  portrait  by  Titian 


84  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

in  the  National  Museum.  It  is  a  replica  of  that  by 
the  same  artist  which  was  sent  to  England  in  1553  to 
forward  the  suit  of  Philip  for  the  hand  of  Mary  Tudor. 
The  original  is  now  in  Madrid;  but  this  in  Naples,  and 
others,  are  not  inferior,  since  they  were  made  by  the  same 
great  master. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

PHILIP  III.   AND  PHILIP   IV. 

1598-1647. 

IN  the  seventeenth  century  Naples  was  governed  by  Philip 
III.,  Philip  IV.,  and  Charles  II.  of  Spain.  Neither  of 
these  sovereigns  merit  our  attention,  and  in  the  long  pro- 
cession of  their  viceroys  and  lieutenants,  there  is  rarely 
one  of  whom  we  have  occasion  to  speak  at  length.  During 
this  epoch  Naples  suffered  the  results  of  the  policy  which 
had  been  pursued  by  its  preceding  rulers.  Industries,  com- 
merce, and  everything  that  makes  the  financial  prosperity 
of  a  nation  were  at  the  lowest  ebb.  Villages  deserted  and 
rich  fields  lying  fallow  spoke  but  too  plainly  of  the  decrease 
in  population,  and  the  weak  sovereigns  at  Madrid  were 
powerless  to  confer  prosperity  on  their  provinces;  taken 
for  all  in  all,  the  story  of  Naples  in  this  era  is  sad  and 
depressing. 

It  is,  however,  an  interesting  period  in  which  to  study 
the  character,  manners,  and  customs  of  the  Neapolitans. 
At  one  time  the  artists  acted  a  part  curiously  out  of  tune 
with  their  art;  the  story  of  Masaniello  is  of  absorbing 
interest,  and  occasionally  a  viceroy  appeared  who  makes  a 
picturesque  feature  in  the  general  monotony  of  the  time. 

Don  Pedro  Giron,  Duke  of  Ossuna,  was  one  of  these. 
He  was  the  second  viceroy  of  his  name,  and  came  of  an 
important  family,  in  whose  chapel  at  Ossuna  this  elevated 
sentiment  holds  a  place  of  honor :  "  If  life  is  beautiful, 
death  is  gain."  However  much  this  duke  endeavored  to 


86  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

make  his  earthly  life  beautiful  from  his  point  of  view,  he 
sought  a  gain  in  no  wise  dependent  on  death.  No  viceroy 
at  Naples  had  assumed  such  state  and  magnificence  as  did 
he  from  his  first  appearance  at  her  gates.  He  frequently 
drove  through  the  city  in  a  carriage  drawn  by  six  horses  ; 
it  was  covered  with  black  velvet  ornamented  in  silver  with- 
out and  gold  within ;  two  hundred  pounds  of  silver  in 
addition  to  the  gold  and  jewels  on  the  sideposts  increased 
the  price  of  this  chariot  to  three  or  four  thousand  scudi. 
Besides  being  showered  with  petitions  which  were  thrown 
into  his  carriage,  he  actually  gave  audiences  in  the  street, 
while  crowds  collected  to  admire  and  criticise  his  assump- 
tion of  super-regal  splendor. 

He  professed  himself  greatly  interested  in  the  cause  of 
justice,  and  had  a  habit  of  going  about  the  city  late  at 
night,  when  he  carefully  noted  everything  irregular  and 
severely  punished  the  offenders.  In  public  he  was  all 
generosity,  and  scattered  coins  among  the  people  who 
flattered  him.  With  the  unthinking  rabble  he  gained  a 
certain  popularity,  so  that  when  he  made  a  feint  of  resign- 
ing his  office  they  petitioned  him  to  remain  their  viceroy. 

The  more  intelligent  of  his  subjects  were  not  surprised 
by  his  gradual  assumption  of  illegal  power,  as  they  had 
doubted  him  from  the  beginning.  He  soon  showed  himself 
a  cruel  tyrant,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  condemn  men  to  the 
galleys  for  life,  or  even  to  death  itself,  without  a  trial ;  and 
this  for  trifling  offences  which  were  oftentimes  personal  to 
himself,  as  when  a  dentist,  who  had  broken  a  tooth  of 
Ossuna's  some  years  previously,  was  sent  to  the  galleys. 
He  paid  small  deference  to  official  position,  and  even  had 
a  member  of  the  finance  department  flogged  through  the 
town  for  an  idle  word.  Some  of  his  so-called  acts  of  jus- 
tice were  such  that  one  wonders  that  he  was  not  murdered 
once  a  day,  at  least,  if  that  were  possible. 

On  one  occasion  the  presidents  of  the  exchequer  failed 


PHILIP   III.  AND  PHILIP  IV.  87 

to  present  their  accounts  on  the  appointed  day.  Ossuna 
imprisoned  them  in  their  houses  with  threats  of  greater 
severity.  A  few  days  later  he  summoned  them  before  him, 
and  announced  that  they  were  to  be  carried  to  distant 
castles.  Carriages  were  waiting,  and  with  no  preparation, 
and  no  leave-taking  of  family  or  friends,  each  one  was  put 
in  a  separate  coach  and  driven  away,  regardless  of  the 
intercession  of  the  few  who  knew  what  was  being  done. 
When  Ossuna  was  reminded  that  such  journeys  were  often 
fatal  in  the  heat  which  prevailed,  he  replied  that  such  a 
thought  did  not  disturb  him.  His  daring  and  unexampled 
brutality  was  doubtless  the  effect  of  his  suspicion  that  these 
men  had  reported  his  conduct  to  the  court  at  Madrid. 
Ossuna's  fiendish  cruelty  was  combined  with  superstitious 
fear.  He  was  constantly  in  horror  of  being  spellbound, 
and  frequently  had  women  whom  he  suspected  as  witches 
flogged  through  the  streets ;  it  was  a  mark  of  favor  when 
they  were  permitted  to  veil  their  faces  ;  a  monk  bore  a 
crucifix  before  them,  and  after  the  scourging  they  were 
expelled  from  Naples. 

Ossuna's  private  life  was  too  low  and  indecent  for  descrip- 
tion ;  and  yet,  in  spite  of  his  abominable  character  in  both 
his  public  and  private  relations,  he  held  some  potent  charm 
by  which  he  could  attract  a  following  among  the  very 
people  whom  he  outraged.  At  length,  apparently  weary 
of  so  narrow  a  field  as  Naples  afforded  him,  together  with 
the  Spanish  governor  at  Milan,  Don  Pedro  de  Toledo,  and 
the  Spanish  ambassador  to  Venice,  the  Marquis  of  Bedmar, 
he  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  the  Venetian  republic, 
which  presented  the  only  bar  to  the  Spanish  dominion  over 
all  Italy. 

In  the  spring  of  1617,  Ossuna  made  vast  preparations 
for  his  attack  on  Venice.  He  appealed  to  the  piratical 
Usochi,  who  had  long  been  the  enemies  of  the  Republic, 
and  opened  to  them  the  Neapolitan  ports  on  the  Adriatic ; 


88  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

he  enlisted  men,  prepared  vessels,  and  even  took  away  the 
artillery  of  San  Lorenzo.  All  prisoners  and  banditti  were 
offered  pardon  if  they  would  enlist  in  the  service  of  the 
Duke,  and  14,000  soldiers  and  sailors  were  ready  for  his 
work  when  he  commenced  negotiations  with  the  Pope  rela- 
tive to  marching  his  army  across  Lombardy.  Meantime 
he  had  stationed  twenty  galleons  and  other  vessels  in  the 
Neapolitan  harbors,  and  yet  he  continued  his  friendly  rela- 
tions with  the  representative  of  Venice,  who  did  not  leave 
the  court  of  Naples. 

A  naval  conflict  soon  raged  between  Naples  and  Venice, 
and  Ossuna's  anxiety  can  scarcely  be  exaggerated  when  he 
perceived  that  he  had  overstepped  the  bounds  of  his  author- 
ity. He  was  not  an  autocrat  at  Madrid  as  at  Naples,  and 
Spain  did  not  desire  a  war  with  Italy.  De  Reumont 
says :  — 

"  It  was  a  critical  moment  for  Ossuna.  He  saw  his  daring 
plans  thwarted ;  he  felt  how  tottering  was  his  position  at 
Naples ;  his  preparations  had  swallowed  up  vast  sums  of 
money ;  the  land  groaned  under  the  burden  of  quartered  sol- 
diers ;  the  foreign  troops,  especially  the  Walloons,  occasioned 
daily  bloody  quarrels  by  their  want  of  discipline.  All  the  pub- 
lic works  were  at  a  standstill,  the  treasury  empty,  even  the 
artillery  concealed  in  the  Sicilian  fortresses  was  sold.  Envoys 
from  the  nobility  and  from  the  town  were  gone  to  Madrid  to 
allege  their  complaints  against  the  viceroy.  He  had  tried  first 
to  prevent  and  then  to  weaken  their  complaints,  but  failed  in 
both  cases ;  then  the  idea  seemed  to  occur  to  him  of  making 
himself  an  independent  ruler  of  Naples.  He  tried  to  make 
himself  a  party  among  the  common  people  of  Naples,  and 
he  succeeded.  .  .  . 

"  The  noblemen  who  had  any  influence  with  the  better  part 
of  the  people  did  their  possible  to  keep  the  peace  and  preserve 
the  allegiance  due  to  their  monarch ;  but  the  state  of  things 
was  extremely  critical,  and  a  general  terror  prevailed  that  the 
city  would  be  pillaged." 


PHILIP  III.   AND  PHILIP  IV.  89 

Just  at  this  time  news  carne  that  the  Cardinal  Gaspar 
Borgia  had  received  orders  to  leave  Rome  at  once  and 
precede  Ossuna  at  Naples.  The  Duke  offered  all  possible 
resistance  to  the  entrance  of  the  Cardinal  into  the  city. 
But  Borgia  was  clever  enough  to  gain  the  custodian  of 
Castel  Nuovo  to  his  side  ;  he  landed  from  a  fisherman's 
boat,  disguised  as  a  soldier,  and  entered  Naples  at  night,  in 
the  company  of  a  few  friends.  In  the  morning  the  thunder 
of  the  forts  proclaimed  the  new  ruler.  Ossuna  still  tried 
in  vain  to  defend  himself ;  during  the  ten  days  that  he 
remained  in  Naples,  he  witnessed  the  rejoicings  of  the 
people  at  his  overthrow ;  he  beheld  illuminations  three  suc- 
cessive nights  ;  he  saw  his  friends  disgraced,  imprisoned, 
exiled,  and  even  executed,  and  he  departed  in  June,  1620, 
vowing  vengeance  on  his  enemies,  and  declaring  that  he 
•would  vindicate  himself  at  Madrid. 

After  some  delay  he  reached  Madrid,  and  for  a  time  it 
seemed  that  he  would  succeed  in  re-instating  himself  in  the 
esteem  of  Philip  III. ;  but  that  monarch's  death  sounded 
the  knell  of  Ossuna.  He  was  imprisoned,  and  died  a  raving 
maniac  in  1624. 

If  Naples  was  in  a  pitiably  wretched  state  when  Philip 
III.  came  to  the  throne,  it  could  not  have  improved  during 
his  reign.  In  fact,  Philip  IV.,  had  he  thought  of  it  at  all, 
might  well  have  questioned  if  it  were  worth  while  to  retain 
a  possession  so  distant  and  so  wretched.  But  we  may 
doubt  if  the  boy,  a  king  at  sixteen,  knew  anything  of  such 
matters.  He  left  the  government  of  his  monarchy  to  Count 
Olivarez,  who  was  too  much  occupied  with  the  questions 
that  Cardinal  Richelieu  gave  him  to  solve,  and  with  the 
more  important  countries  under  Spanish  rule,  to  devote 
much  care  or  thought  to  the  peninsula  of  Naples,  except 
to  estimate  the  amount  that  could  be  wrung  from  it  in 
taxes.  Industry  and  commerce  were  words  with  no  vital 
meaning  to  the  Neapolitans ;  science,  literature,  and  art 


90  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

could  but  feebly  gasp  at  long  intervals,  weighed  down  as 
they  were  by  miseries  of  every  sort. 

In  fact,  no  manner  of  suffering  was  spared  Naples  at 
this  period.  Famine  stalked  the  peninsula ;  men  were 
sent  to  the  north  to  fight  for  their  tyrant  at  Madrid,  while 
their  own  coasts  were  left  to  the  depredations  of  pirates  ; 
earthquakes  added  their  horrors  to  those  of  famine  ;  in 
Calabria  whole  cities  were  destroyed,  and  human  beings 
perished  by  tens  of  thousands.  Never  had  the  oppression 
of  Spain  been  greater,  and  the  terrible  system  of  taxation 
was  most  severely  felt  by  the  poorest  classes.  Even  these 
distresses  might  have  been  less  fatal  had  there  been  an 
equable  administration  of  justice ;  but  it  can  scarcely  be 
said  that  justice  for  Neapolitans  existed  at  this  time. 

From  a  very  earty  date  the  banditti  had  been  a  source  of 
danger  and  trouble  in  the  whole  territory  of  Naples.  They 
had  never  been  controlled,  and  about  1560  had  elected  a 
king  who  had  his  officials,  granted  privileges,  made  out 
patents,  and  paid  each  bandit  nine  scudi  a  month.  At 
times  a  reformation  of  the  system  or  the  extinction  of  the 
robbers  was  attempted,  without  success,  and  the  seven- 
teenth century  suffered  the  worst  results  of  this  evil. 
Some  of  the  bandit  chiefs  were  noblemen  of  high  degree ; 
gangs  of  robbers  came  even  to  the  gates  of  Naples,  and  the 
efforts  of  the  soldiers  to  contend  with  them  in  the  moun- 
tains were  useless.  Now  and  then  an  efficient  viceroy 
lessened  their  power ;  but  what  could  be  done  effectually 
so  long  as  whole  bands  of  these  robbers  were  taken  into 
military  service,  and  those  condemned  to  death  were  par- 
doned to  become  soldiers  ?  By  this  means  the  army  of 
the  sovereign  was  as  much  to  be  dreaded  as  that  of  the 
bandit  king;  for  not  being  regularly  paid,  the  Spanish 
soldiers  thought  it  right  to  steal  or  take  by  force  any  food 
that  they  could  find,  sometimes  snatching  it  from  the 
mouths  of  those  as  famished  as  themselves.  Terrible  pun- 


PHILIP  III.   AND  PHILIP  IV.  91 

ishments  were  administered ;  ears  and  hands  were  lopped 
off ;  the  galleys  were  constantly  filled  by  men  sent  there 
without  a  trial  of  any  sort,  while  for  money  or  the  head 
of  a  bandit,  even  murder  was  overlooked. 

Added  to  this  utter  absence  of  law  or  order  was  the 
right  of  asylum  in  churches  and  monasteries,  which  per- 
mitted the  refuge  of  criminals  in  these  sacred  places  in 
order  to  avoid  arrest.  This  privilege  was  so  often  violated 
by  the  officers  of  the  law  that  constant  quarrels  occurred 
between  them  and  the  authorities  of  the  Church,  from 
which  numberless  mandates  and  excommunications  re- 
sulted. In  1600  the  Pope's  nuncio,  Giacomo  Aldobrandini, 
represented  this  evil  to  the  court  at  Rome  in  the  strongest 
terms  of  condemnation.  He  reported  that  this  intercourse 
between  these  criminals  and  the  clergy  and  monks  was 
bringing  incredible  harm  to  the  Church  ;  that  in  some 
places  outside  of  Naples,  the  monks  shared  the  spoils  of 
the  robbers,  and  served  them  as  a  means  of  communication 
with  their  friends.  He  saw  no  possible  remedy  unless  the 
magistrates  should  use  such  violent  measures  as  would 
greatly  lessen  the  dignity  of  the  Church. 

The  nuncio  also  reported  the  degradation  of  the  priest- 
hood. He  explained  that  many  assumed  to  be  clergymen 
who  were  not  really  so,  and  sometimes  they  did  not  even 
wear  the  garb  of  a  priest ;  these  were  called  "  wild,"  Sal- 
vatichi,  —  a  term  they  well  merited.  He  declared  that  the 
monks  hesitated  at  no  evil ;  and  when  the  viceroy  deplored 
that  the  clergy  were  sent  to  the  gallows,  the  nuncio  replied 
that  no  other  punishment  would  serve  the  purpose,  and 
added  the  curious  comment  that  the  galleys  often  saved 
them  from  the  gallows.  The  Popes,  one  after  another, 
labored  to  suppress  these  outrages  with  small  effect ;  and 
the  story  of  the  excesses,  profanation,  and  crimes  per- 
petrated near  and  even  in  the  churches  would  fill  volumes. 
The  jealousy  between  the  civil  and  clerical  powers  was  an 


92  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

insurmountable  hindrance  to  a  reform  of  these  matters ; 
these  authorities  regarded  each  other  as  rivals,  which  made 
a  better  administration  of  affairs  in  which  both  were  con- 
cerned almost  hopeless. 

In  the  midst  of  such  a  condition  one  would  scarcely  look 
for  a  luxurious  and  splendid  court,  and  a  merry  life  for 
those  who  lived  above  the  abject  wretchedness  of  the 
people,  but  could  not  have  been  ignorant  of  it.  However, 
since  the  days  of  Don  Pedro  de  Toledo,  the  viceroys  had 
maintained  a  regal  state,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century  the  officers  of  the  palace,  the  guard 
of  nobles,  the  various  dignitaries  in  attendance,  and  the 
immense  corps  of  servants  transformed  the  residence  of  a 
subject  into  a  royal  dwelling  in  outward  appearance.  In 
fact,  the  viceroys  conducted  themselves  like  absolute  rulers. 
The  ceremonial  observed  when  they  assumed  their  office 
is  thus  described  :  — 

"  On  their  arrival  they  usually  remained  at  one  of  the  villas 
belonging  to  the  nobility  at  Posilipo  or  Chiara,  till  their  prede- 
cessor had  evacuated  the  palace.  Then  they  were  conducted 
in  a  richly  decorated  felucca  to  the  harbor,  where  a  wooden 
pier,  covered  with  red  damask,  and  a  canopy  of  various  colors 
stretched  over  it,  was  erected  for  them.  The  viceroy  landed 
amidst  music  and  volleys  of  artillery ;  here  the  deputies  of  the 
town  received  him,  whilst  the  soldiers  of  the  body-guard  and 
the  sailors  of  the  royal  galleys,  according  to  an  old  privilege, 
plundered  the  pier  and  canopy,  and  fought  skirmishes.  His 
Excellency  and  his  suite  were  conveyed  to  the  palace  in  magnifi- 
cent carriages.  On  the  following  day  a  great  cavalcade,  joined 
sometimes  by  two  hundred  nobles  of  the  highest  rank,  went 
first  to  the  cathedral,  at  the  gates  of  which  the  archbishop  and 
clergy  received  the  representative  of  the  monarch,  the  Te 
Deum  was  chanted,  and  they  proceeded  through  the  town. 
This  was  taking  possession.  It  was  performed  with  more  or 
less  pomp,  according  to  the  character  and  taste  of  the 
individual." 


PHILIP  III.  AND  PHILIP  IV.  93 

No  autocrat  could  be  more  regardless  of  the  rank  of  his 
subjects,  nor  more  insulting  in  his  treatment  of  those  who 
offended  him  than  were  these  Spanish  viceroys  in  Naples. 
De  Reumont  gives  some  examples  of  this  :  — 

"  In  the  year  1614  the  Count  of  Lemos  imprisoned  the 
Prince  of  Conca  and  the  Duke  of  Bovino,  the  first  Lord  High 
Admiral,  and  the  other  High  Seneschal  of  the  kingdom,  and 
sent  one  to  Castel  Nuovo  and  the  other  to  S.  Elmo,  because,  as 
supporters  of  the  dignity  of  the  crown,  they  had  refused  to 
appear  at  a  review  amongst  the  crowd  of  nobles,  but  claimed 
reserved  places.  A  year  afterwards  the  same  Count  of  Lemos 
caused  the  Duke  of  Nocera,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  feu- 
datories of  the  house  of  Carafa,  to  be  seized  in  his  palace  by  a 
number  of  Sbirri,  because  he  had  disobeyed  the  injunction  of 
the  king  and  married  without  his  consent.  Arrests  for  debt, 
even  for  very  small  sums,  were  not  unusual ;  and  the  vanity  as 
well  as  the  pretensions  to  rank  of  the  Neapolitans  was  hurt  by 
the  Spaniards  in  this  and  in  all  ways.  .  .  . 

"  When  the  Duke  of  Alva,  in  August,  1629,  made  his  first 
visit  to  his  successor,  the  Duke  of  Alcala,  who  had  landed  at 
the  Palazzo  di  Trajetto  at  Posilipo,  he  summoned  almost  the 
whole  body  of  the  great  nobility,  that  he  might  be  attended  by 
a  brilliant  escort:  after  these  nobles  had  waited  for  a  long 
hour  in  the  hall,  they  were  informed  that  his  Excellency  did 
not  require  their  services  to-day,  as  he  had  changed  his  mind. 
The  princes  and  dukes  left  the  house  in  disgust ;  but  the  next 
day  Alva  summoned  them  again,  and  they  all  hastened  back 
to  the  palace,  — proof  enough,  says  a  contemporary  chronicler, 
that  the  worse  they  are  treated,  the  more  submissive  they  be- 
come. Such  things  must  the  men  submit  to,  whose  origin  may 
be  traced  to  the  time  of  the  Lombards,  to  the  ancient  Grecian- 
Italian  races  who  inhabited  the  shores  of  Amalfi,  who  were 
descendants  of  the  valiant  followers  of  a  Bras  de  Fer,  of  a 
Guiscard,  and  of  a  Roger." 

There  were  slight  differences  in  the  degree  of  personal 
magnificence  assumed  by  the  viceroys,  but  the  result  was 


94  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

the  same.  If  they  travelled,  they  made  royal  progresses, 
were  splendidly  entertained  by  the  nobles,  and  made  regal 
presents  to  their  subjects.  Occasionally  a  viceroy  was 
very  rich ;  but  whether  he  were  so  or  no,  his  wants  could 
be  supplied  by  donatives,  and  they  received  enormous  sums 
in  this  way.  Gifts  varying  from  twenty  to  seventy-five 
thousand  ducats  were  frequently  made  to  them,  and  it  is 
said  that  in  six  years  the  Count  of  Monterey  received 
43,000,000  ducats,  of  which  but  17,000,000  reached  the 
royal  treasury.  Capecelatro  says  that  this  viceroy  required 
forty  ships  in  which  to  transport  his  possessions,  —  4,500 
packages  of  furniture,  gold  and  silver  plate,  works  of  art, 
and  other  valuables,  —  although  much  had  already  been 
sent  away. 

It  was  estimated  that  the  Duke  of  Medina  in  six  years 
took,  in  one  form  and  another,  30,000,000  ducats,  and  left 
Naples  in  such  poverty  that  scarcely  a  house  existed  in 
which  a  good  meal  could  be  served.  As  we  walk  to-day  in 
the  Strada  Medina,  or  see  the  fountain  bearing  this  name, 
we  wonder  that  the  starving  Neapolitans  permitted  him  to 
be  thus  honored,  and  are  not  surprised  that  when,  three 
years  later,  a  defender  of  their  cause  presented  himself, 
they  were  ready  for  insurrection. 

The  court  of  a  viceroy  is  apt  to  be  a  travesty  on  the 
court  of  a  sovereign,  even  when  the  sovereign  and  his 
deputy  are  able  men ;  how  much  more  so,  when,  as  in  the 
case  of  Naples  at  this  period,  the  sovereign  was  weak,  and 
the  viceroy  mercenary  !  The  pivot  on  which  the  affairs  of 
Naples  turned  was  at  Madrid ;  there  was  no  central  point 
at  home ;  no  dignified  relations  abroad  which  opened  a 
field  to  diplomatic  talent,  and  the  Neapolitan  nobles  must 
be  either  courtiers  or  soldiers.  Many  chose  the  military  pro- 
fession, raised  troops  at  their  own  cost,  conducted  them  to 
other  countries,  and  won  admiration  and  respect  from  brave 
enemies  in  various  portions  of  the  vast  Spanish  territory. 


PHILIP  III.  AND  PHILIP  IV.  95 

Those  who  remained  at  court  were  vain  and  quarrelsome. 
They  held  themselves  above  all  useful  pursuits,  not  even 
managing  their  own  estates.  They  cherished  numberless 
jealousies,  and  were  so  punctilious  as  to  rank  and  prece- 
dence that  even  religious  functions  were  interrupted  by 
quarrels  ;  processions  were  stopped,  torches  extinguished, 
and  tumults  excited,  in  the  midst  of  which  the  priests  help- 
lessly bore  the  Sacred  Host,  unable  to  proceed  until  order 
could  be  restored.  If  an  Eccellentissimo  did  not  receive 
his  proper  title,  his  sword  was  quickly  in  air,  even  among 
his  fellows,  and  the  treatment  of  inferiors  by  these  grandees 
was  too  cruel  and  tyrannical  for  belief.  At  times  the 
viceroys  permitted  the  nobles  to  indulge  their  pride  to  the 
full,  and  again  treated  them  like  upper  servants,  in  order  to 
humiliate  the  masters  in  the  eyes  of  their  vassals,  in  revenge 
of  the  fact  that  the  people  respected  Neapolitan  nobles  as 
they  could  not  be  induced  to  respect  the  Spaniards. 

This  was  everywhere  a  period  of  lethargy  and  inaction 
in  art  and  literature;  imagination  was  stifled,  and  the 
commonplace  of  luxury,  expenditure,  and  ostentation  filled 
all  great  centres  of  life  and  power.  The  higher  and  finer 
attainments  of  the  human  mind  were  conspicuous  by  their 
infrequency,  while  pomps,  pretensions,  and  the  pursuit  of 
pleasure  apparently  satisfied  the  great  and  powerful.  This 
was  eminently  true  of  Naples,  where  the  most  sordid,  de- 
pressing, and  even  revolting  spectacle  was  afforded  by  the 
luxurious  life  of  the  rich  and  titled  families  in  hideous 
contrast  with  the  misery  and  degradation  of  the  masses  of 
the  people. 

The  royal  palace,  designed  by  Fontana  and  begun  in 
1600,  has  been  so  changed  by  fire  and  rebuilding,  as  well 
as  by  the  needs  and  fancies  of  later  rulers  and  architects, 
that  it  has  little  present  interest.  But  it  was  a  fitting 
place  for  the  festivities  which  constantly  occurred  there 
while  it  was  still  new.  It  is  estimated  that  50,000  ducats 


96  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

were  annually  spent  on  them  by  some  viceroys.  Tourna- 
ments, balls,  suppers,  and  all  the  pleasures  that  could  be 
devised  followed  closely,  one  upon  another.  On  one  occa- 
sion Ossuna  invited  more  than  a  hundred  ladies  to  a  supper, 
and  appointed  their  lordly  relatives  to  serve  them  at  table. 
He  watched  the  affair  through  a  distant  window,  and 
appeared  at  the  end  of  the  meal  in  a  magnificent  costume  ; 
he  ordered  the  windows  to  be  opened  and  the  remnants  of 
the  feast  thrown  into  the  court  of  the  Arsenal ;  meantime 
the  ball-room  was  lighted,  and  the  dancing  lasted  until  long 
after  sunrising. 

In  the  year  1618,  during  the  carnival,  a  great  masquerade 
was  held  in  the  palace.  A  Turkish  vessel  passed  through 
the  hall,  from  which  knights  jumped  out  and  tilted  with 
each  other ;  a  supper  and  ball  followed.  But  the  climax 
of  display  and  constant  festivity  was  reached  under  Ossuna, 
whose  wife  was  devoted  to  gayety.  On  one  occasion  she 
arranged  a  ball  at  which  twelve  maidens  of  high  rank 
formed  a  quadrille.  The  viceroy  paid  for  their  costumes 
600  ducats  fof  each  lady;  they  consisted  of  white  satin 
undergarments  trimmed  with  gold  lace,  and  petticoats, 
reaching  to  the  middle  of  the  legs,  of  the  same  materials ; 
their  trains  were  of  silver  brocade,  and  were  carried  over 
the  arm  in  dancing ;  they  had  dainty  shoes,  and  beautiful 
heron's  plumes  ornamented  the  white  crowns  on  their 
heads.  When  the  time  came  for  their  dance,  they  ad- 
vanced in  pairs,  bearing  torches  in  the  right  hand,  and  as 
they  danced  they  made  courtesies  to  the  viceroy.  A  torch 
dance  followed,  in  which  the  viceroy  joined ;  and  the  re- 
freshments were  then  served,  which,  curiously  enough,  were 
always  the  same  with  high  and  low,  and  consisted  of  grapes 
and  melons.  Sometimes  the  Greek  gods  and  goddesses 
appeared  at  the  festivals,  and  angels  sang  madrigals  in 
honor  of  the  giver  of  the  feast. 

Successive  viceroys  vied  with  each  other  in  inventing 


PHILIP  III.   AND  PHILIP  IV.  97 

new  and  splendid  entertainments.  Dramatic  representa- 
tions were  very  popular,  not  only  at  the  Palazzo  Reale,  but 
in  private  palaces  as  well,  and  even  in  churches  and  con- 
vents ;  these  last  were  by  no  means  confined  to  mysteries 
and  moralities,  but  consisted  of  such  dramas  and  comedies 
as  could  be  seen  elsewhere.  Ecclesiastics  wrote  plays,  and 
"  L'Inconstante  "  by  a  Camaldolese  Father  was  extremely 
successful.  The  monasteries  and  nunneries  were  much  oc- 
cupied in  these  representations,  and  the  Jesuits  spent  7,000 
ducats  on  a  play  in  honor  of  the  Queen  of  Hungary,  —  the 
Infanta,  —  in  which  dancing  boys  and  other  secular  features 
were  presented  to  an  audience  in  which  the  clergy  were 
numerous,  even  cardinal  archbishops  being  present.  In 
the  Benedictine  nunnery  a  play  was  acted  to  which  noble 
ladies  were  admitted  by  the  Pope's  permission ;  others 
looked  on  from  the  outside,  and  even  cavaliers  were  spec- 
tators from  the  church ;  all  of  which  occasioned  a  great 
scandal. 

The  Count  of  Monterey  had  such  a  passion  for  the  drama 
that  he  heeded  neither  times  nor  seasons,  but  had  a  play 
daily  in  some  private  or  public  theatre.  He  went  from  the 
theatre  to  Mass,  and  from  Mass  to  the  theatre.  He  con- 
stantly associated  with  actors ;  and  when  he  brought  a 
Spanish  company  to  Naples  at  great  expense  and  the 
theatres  were  not  well  filled,  he  commanded  the  attendance 
of  the  Spanish  officers  and  of  the  questionable  women  of 
the  city,  and  fined  these  last  for  each  absence. 

Horsemanship  had  been  much  in  vogue  with  the  nobles, 
and  we  have  seen  that  royal  stables  and  a  riding-school 
were  established  in  1586.  But  in  the  seventeenth  century 
even  this  custom  declined.  Horses  deteriorated,  and  so 
many  mules  were  used  that  an  edict  was  issued  against 
them  on  account  of  the  injury  which  resulted  to  the  breed- 
ing of  horses.  Gaming  of  all  sorts  was  carried  to  the 
greatest  excess;  and  finally,  in  the  revolt  of  1647,  the 


98  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

people  visited  the  gaming-houses,  made  a  heap  of  all  the 
furniture,  dice,  cards,  and  other  implements  that  they 
could  seize,  and  set  fire  to  them,  as  well  as  to  one  hundred 
gambling-houses. 

Disreputable  women  were  forbidden  to  be  seen  on  the 
fashionable  promenades  by  the  Chiaja  and  Mergellina,  to 
go  out  in  a  carriage  or  sedan-chair,  or  sail  in  a  felucca  to 
Posilipo,  as  was  greatly  the  mode.  They  were  not  allowed 
to  pass  the  night  in  an  inn,  and  were  scourged  for  break- 
ing these  laws ;  and  yet  their  numbers  constantly  increased, 
and  abominable  scandals  were  frequent,  in  which  cavaliers 
of  high  position  were  invariably  involved.  Scarcely  a  night 
passed  without  quarrels  over  games  and  women,  in  which 
wounds  were  received,  often  so  severe  as  to  maim  for  life 
and  even  to  cause  death. 

Duelling,  against  which  edicts  had  been  constantly  issued 
for  a  century,  had  reached  such  a  height,  in  1638,  that  in 
a  single  week  five  duels  were  fought  by  young  noblemen  in 
Naples.  Sometimes  bands  of  men  fought  with  each  other  ; 
and  in  these  contests  it  was  not  uncommon  for  deaths  to 
occur  and  a  dozen  men  to  be  wounded.  All  sorts  of  causes 
led  to  duels.  Rivalry  in  love,  gaming,  indifference  in  man- 
ner of  greeting,  or  even  the  treatment  of  one's  lap-dog  was 
a  quite  sufficient  reason  for  a  challenge.  It  sometimes 
seemed  that  the  love  of  duelling  was  the  sole  reason  for 
its  existence.  But  there  were  cases  of  a  more  serious 
nature,  as  in  the  feud  between  the  Carafas  and  Acquavivas 
of  Noja.  The  Duke  of  Noja  cut  off  the  nose  and  ears  of 
a  vassal  who  had  offended  him,  and  sent  him  back  to  his 
master,  an  Acquaviva.  After  many  attempts  at  revenge, 
the  quarrel  resulted  in  the  determination  of  Francesco 
Carafa  and  Giulio  Acquaviva  to  fight  until  one  should  be 
killed.  In  all  Italy  no  spot  could  be  found  where  this  sort 
of  duel  would  be  permitted,  and  a  license  was  obtained 
from  the  magistrates  of  Nuremberg.  A  great  number  of 


PHILIP   III.   AND  PHILIP  IV.  99 

men,  and  even  of  women,  assembled  to  witness  this  unusual 
combat,  which  proved  to  be  a  ridiculous  affair.  After  so 
much  thirst  for  pure  revenge,  as  soon  as  Carafa  was 
wounded  the  antagonists  were  reconciled.  The  journey 
to  Nuremberg  was  long  enough  to  cool  even  the  blood  of 
a  Neapolitan. 

This  fashion  of  duelling  among  the  nobles  affected  the 
lower  classes.  Soldiers  fought  each  other  in  great  num- 
bers and  for  slight  causes,  and  the  knives  of  the  people 
seemed  to  be  always  in  the  air.  Under  such  conditions, 
the  greatest  insecurity  to  life  and  property  existed,  and 
this  evil  was  further  aggravated  by  the  shameless  employ- 
ment of  bravoes  in  deeds  of  violence.  A  noble  having  a 
spite  against  a  man  of  a  lesser  rank,  or  being  actuated  by 
a  cowardly  desire  for  revenge,  or  having  any  other  reason 
for  not  wishing  to  appear  personally  in  the  conduct  of  his 
schemes,  did  not  hesitate  to  hire  assassins  to  work  his  will ; 
and  it  is  a  forcible  comment  on  the  spirit  of  the  times  that 
this  custom  was  accepted  as  permissible  by  all  classes. 
When  the  violence  of  the  nobles  reached  the  point  of 
murder  and  all  sorts  of  cruelties  to  their  own  class,  what 
could  be  expected  of  them  when  their  inferiors  only  were 
involved  ? 

The  diaries  and  chronicles  of  this  century  speak  but 
sparingly  of  the  domestic  life  of  the  time,  which  fact  shows 
that  it  was  considered  as  unimportant.  Young  girls  of 
fortune  were  placed  in  convents  to  be  educated  and  pro- 
tected from  the  many  dangers  which  threatened  them  out- 
side these  asylums.  When  they  reached  the  customary 
age,  a  marriage  was  arranged,  and  they  were  led  from 
the  convent  to  the  altar. 

At  the  balls  and  fetes  where  ladies  appeared,  fierce  quar- 
rels often  arose  concerning  matters  of  etiquette  and  prece- 
dence ;  and  they  were  not  above  boxing  ears  and  scratching 
faces.  The  Countess  of  Monterey  publicly  carried  a  slipper 


100  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

about,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  beat  such  ladies  as  offended 
her.  The  morals  of  women  of  position  were  conspicuous 
by  their  absence,  and  it  was  thought  no  shame  to  be  the 
mistress  of  a  viceroy.  The  ladies  of  the  court  exceeded 
all  bounds  of  decency  in  dress ;  at  a  masquerade  in  1639, 
the  Duchess  of  Medina  and  twenty-three  other  beautiful 
women  appeared  in  such  a  lack  of  costume  as  excited  a 
scandal,  even  at  the  court  of  Naples.  But  in  spite  of  all 
these  faults,  when  the  hour  of  danger  came,  these  women 
were  not  wanting  in  courage  and  devotion  to  their  cause 
and  to  their  friends. 

Visiting  convents  was  a  favorite  pastime  with  noble 
ladies ;  and  on  one  occasion  when  the  Pope  permitted  them 
to  go  to  the  house  of  the  Donna  Regina,  they  sent,  in 
advance,  three  wild  boars,  fifteen  kids,  twelve  turkey  cocks, 
twelve  capons,  a  variety  of  cheeses,  a  quantity  of  macaroni, 
and  many  sweets.  All  these  were  served  up  in  the  refec- 
tory ;  and  the  ladies  were  not  so  much  impressed  by  the 
sanctity  of  the  place,  nor  had  the  nuns  sufficient  dignity 
to  command  their  respect  in  such  wise,  as  to  make  their 
conduct  refined  or  elegant ;  on  the  contrary,  their  conver- 
sation was  seasoned  with  such  expressions  as  will  not  bear 
repetition- 

in  spite  of  the  depressing  facts  we  have  given,  Capaccio, 
who  wrote  an  exact  account  of  Naples  in  1634,  says  that 
within  sixty  years  the  population  and  the  number  of  houses 
had  largely  increased ;  the  form  and  extent  of  the  city  had 
varied  but  little  in  a  century,  but  many  quarters  were  more 
thickly  populated,  and  the  inhabitants  numbered  300,000. 
The  imports  of  luxuries,  such  as  sugar,  wax,  almonds, 
spices,  fine  cloths,  gold  and  silk  stuffs  and  embroideries, 
amounted  to  many  thousand  ducats.  Of  the  activity  and 
populousness,  Capaccio  says :  — 

"  Besides  the  handicraftsmen  who  carry  on  their  trade  in 
the  open  streets,  besides  those  who  have  their  workshops  in 


Neapolitan  Costumes. 


PHILIP  III.  AND  PHILIP  IV.  101 

their  houses,  in  every  street,  in  every  alley,  in  every  corner  is 
to  be  seen  a  crowd  of  people,  pressing,  pushing,  and  pursuing 
their  callings,  so  that  a  man  has  often  a  hard  matter  to  pass 
through  them.  If  you  go  into  the  churches  where  there  is 
preaching,  as  surely  do  you  find  them  filled  with  human  beings. 
Should  you  betake  yourself  to  the  courts  of  judicature,  you  are 
astonished  at  the  concourse.  And  the  streets  themselves,  not 
one,  not  ten,  but  all,  are  full  of  people,  on  foot,  on  horseback, 
and  in  vehicles  ;  so  that  there  is  a  turmoil  and  a  hum  as  though 
it  were  a  swarm  of  bees.  Everywhere,  and  at  all  times,  and 
to  anybody,  nothing  is  more  laborious  than  to  wander  about 
Naples." 

The  situation  of  Naples  was  so  advantageous  for  com- 
merce that  each  year  brought  foreign  merchants  to  dwell 
here,  and  its  business  increased.  This  kind  of  growth  did 
not  please  the  viceroys :  it  caused  the  taxes  in  Naples  to 
press  less  heavily  on  the  poor  than  in  the  country,  and  the 
villages  were  almost  depopulated ;  this  massing  of  an 
excitable  people  increased  the  danger  of  insurrections  and 
the  difficulty  of  checking  them.  For  these  reasons  the 
castle  of  S.  Elmo  —  which  commanded  the  whole  city  — 
was  enlarged  and  strengthened  in  1641.  It  is  a  curious 
fact  that,  in  the  midst  of  this  increasing  commerce  and 
wealth,  the  short-sighted  policy  of  the  Spaniards  crippled 
the  industries  of  Naples  by  foolish  restrictions.  The  Duke 
of  Arcos  subjected  the  silk-workers'  guild  to  the  oversight 
of  the  police,  and  favored  the  monopoly  of  the  industry  by 
the  city  itself ;  while  the  Marquis  of  Carpio  prohibited  the 
use  of  new  inventions,  and  only  such  silk  stuffs  as  were 
made  by  the  ancient  Spanish  rescripts  and  at  a  fixed  price 
were  allowed  to  be  sold.  And  yet  —  so  great  was  the 
industry  of  the  people,  and  so  pressing  their  needs  —  even 
under  such  disadvantages  the  silk  manufacture  flourished, 
and  possibly  was  slightly  increased  in  the  first  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century. 


102  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

The  palaces  of  the  period  displayed  a  vast  array  of  splen- 
did carpets  and  hangings  of  all  kinds,  called  Arazzi ;  lofty 
mirrors,  pictures,  sculptures  in  marble  and  bronze,  splen- 
did vessels  of  gold,  silver,  crystal,  glass,  and  Oriental  por- 
celains were  much  in  use ;  great  care  was  taken  that  all 
materials  should  be  costly ;  tableware  was  of  the  richest 
silver  and  silver  gilt,  and  furniture  was  heavily  gilded. 
Gilders  were  so  greatly  in  demand  that  Ossuna,  in 
1618,  forbade  their  employment  by  private  individuals, 
under  pain  of  the  galleys,  until  a  certain  galleon  was 
completed.  Churches  and  monasteries  were  generously 
endowed  and  ornamented  with  the  same  care  as  to  the 
intrinsic  value  of  their  decorations  that  was  bestowed  on 
the  palaces.  In  1642,  200,000  ducats  were  spent  on  the 
altar  of  the  Annunziata.  The  treasury  of  S.  Januarius 
was  endowed  with  its  rarest  treasures  at  this  time,  and 
1,000,000  ducats  spent  on  its  chapel.  The  generosity  of 
this  epoch  was  only  exceeded  in  times  of  unusual  danger, 
such  as  that  of  the  great  plague,  when  the  imminence  of 
death  made  all  objects  seem  valueless,  and  yet  men  hoped 
that  God  might  be  placated  by  such  gifts. 

The  art  of  the  seventeenth  century  in  Naples  is  well 
displayed  in  the  church  of  S.  Martino  and  in  the  chapel  of 
S.  Januarius,  also  called  the  Cappella  del  Tesoro,  in  the  ca- 
thedral. S.  Martino  is  rich  in  the  most  exquisite  marbles 
and  beautiful  porphyry.  The  walls  are  covered  with 
mosaic,  and  the  altars  finished  with  lapis-lazuli,  agate, 
jasper,  and  amethysts  ;  leaves,  rosettes,  and  other  designs 
are  executed  in  mezzo  relievo  from  the  richest  materials, 
and  the  extravagances  of  the  architect,  Fansaga  of  Ber- 
gamo, are  seen  on  every  side,  giving  an  effect  of  astonish- 
ing splendor.  The  mark  of  Fansaga  is  on  many  edifices 
in  Naples.  He  designed  the  faQade  of  the  Cappella  del 
Tesoro ;  while  Francesco  Grimaldi  of  Oppido  was  the  archi- 
tect of  the  chapel  itself,  which  was  built  in  fulfilment  of  a 


PHILIP  III.  AND  PHILIP  IV.  103 

TOW  made  during  the  plague  of  152T,  and  was  completed 
a  century  later,  at  a  cost  of  1,000,000  ducats,  equal  to 
about  the  same  sum  in  dollars.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a 
Greek  cross,  and  has  a  large  cupola ;  it  has  eight  altars, 
and  is  rich  in  marbles  and  gold ;  the  finely  wrought  lattice- 
work is  magnificent,  and  the  forty-two  columns  of  Spanish 
Brocatello  add  great  splendor  to  the  effect  of  the  whole ; 
porphyry  and  lapis-lazuli,  statues  in  bronze  and  marble, 
huge  silver  candlesticks  and  numerous  objects  in  silver 
gilt,  render  .this  chapel  bewildering  in  riches. 

Several  pictures  by  Domenichino  still  remain,  although 
he  could  not  endure  the  persecution  he  suffered  and  ran 
away,  leaving  his  work  unfinished,  as  Guido  Reni  had 
previously  done.  The  story  of  the  persecution  of  artists 
who  came  from  other  cities  to  work  in  Naples  at  this  time, 
proves  it  to  have  been  ruled  by  anarchy  and  crime,  else 
how  could  artists  who  had  made  contracts  with  the  proper 
authorities  for  the  decoration  of  such  an  edifice  as  this 
chapel  be  threatened,  insulted,  and  even  murdered,  as 
Domenico,  the  assistant  of  Guido,  is  believed  to  have 
been? 

Belisario  Corenzio  and  the  Neapolitan  painters  of  his 
company  carried  matters  with  a  high  hand.  They  deter- 
mined that  no  outside  artist  should  work  there ;  and  fol- 
lowing the  example  constantly  set  them  in  other  matters, 
they  hesitated  at  nothing  that  could  further  their  aims. 
Thus  Belisario  hired  the  assassin  who  killed  Domenico ; 
the  assassin  was  sent  to  the  galleys,  and  the  painter  was 
a  long  time  in  prison.  We  cannot  wonder  that  foreign 
artists  refused  commissions  in  Naples ;  the  committee  tried 
native  artists  with  no  satisfactory  result ;  Belisario  himself 
was  tested,  and  failed  ;  and  at  length,  years  after  it  should 
have  been  completed,  Ribera  and  Stanzioni  finished  the 
altar-pieces,  and  Lanfranco  filled  the  cupola  of  the  Cappella 
del  Tesoro  with  figures  unworthy  of  a  second  thought. 


104  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Michael  Angelo  da  Caravaggio  was  a  coarse  man  and  an 
unrefined  artist,  but  a  good  colorist  and  a  faithful  student 
of  Nature.  He  may  be  said  to  have  resurrected  the  Nea- 
politan school  of  art,  which,  if  not  dead,  was  certainly  sleep- 
ing profoundly.  The  school  of  Caravaggio  was  gloomy  to 
horror ;  it  dealt  with  tragic,  bloody  motives,  and  its  depress- 
ing and  repulsive  character  is  felt  to-day  in  the  churches 
and  galleries  of  Naples.  .Ribera  and  Caraccioli,  with  Beli- 
sario  Corenzio,  were  the  comrades  and  aids  of  Caravaggio ; 
and  Ribera,  who  was  made  court  painter  by  Ossuna,  had 
every  possible  opportunity  to  impress  himself  upon  the  city 
of  his  adoption. 

He  lived  in  splendor,  having  carriages,  servants  in  livery, 
and  other  appointments  such  as  few  painters  of  his  day 
could  afford.  His  wife,  Leonora  Cortes,  held  a  conspi- 
cuous position  by  reason  of  her  wit  and  beauty,  and  received 
much  attention  from  the  Neapolitan  cavaliers.  Ribera 
was  not  of  commanding  stature,  but  his  dignity  of  bearing 
secured  him  respect.  While  at  work,  his  servant  held  his 
brushes,  and  reminded  him  that  he  should  seek  the  fresh 
air,  after  a  certain  number  of  hours.  At  evening  a  delight- 
ful society  gathered  at  his  house  ;  his  cheerfulness  making 
him  an  agreeable  companion,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
his  jests  were  sarcastic,  and  his  passionate  temper  easily 
aroused.  While  one  is  disgusted  and  repulsed  by  many 
of  Ribera's  works,  he  demands  our  sympathy  when  we 
remember  his  suffering,  and  the  cause  which  drove  him 
in  shame  from  the  city  where  he  had  lived  in  his  pride, 
and  led  him  to  so  hide  himself  that  neither  the  time,  place, 
nor  manner  of  his  death  is  known. 

His  eldest  daughter,  the  lovely  Maria  Rosa,  was  a  victim 
to  the  seductions  of  Don  John,  son  of  Philip  III.  She 
followed  him  first  to  the  palace  and  then  to  Palermo. 
Ribera  cursed  the  pride  which  had  led  him  into  an  ac- 
quaintance with  men  so  far  above  his  rank,  and  retired  to 


PHILIP  III.  AND  PHILIP  IV.  105 

Posilipo,  refusing  to  go  out  or  see  guests  at  home.  His 
wife  could  not  endure  this  life  placidly,  and  her  regrets 
and  upbraidings  drove  him  to  hide  himself  from  all  who 
had  ever  known  him.  Maria  Rosa  soon  died  of  a  broken 
heart.  The  striking  feature  of  this  story  is  that  Ribera, 
an  humble  painter,  who  from  many  of  his  works  would 
seem  to  be  a  coarse  and  even  brutal  man,  —  living,  too,  in 
the  midst  of  a  society  in  which  all  possible  crimes  and 
revolting  relations  were  accepted  as  a  matter  of  course,  — 
should  have  felt  himself  so  utterly  disgraced  when  his 
child  attracted  the  notice  and  became  the  toy  of  the  son 
of  his  sovereign. 

With  few  exceptions,  among  which  Ribera  and  Salvator 
Rosa  are  important,  the  artists  of  Naples  painted  much  in 
fresco ;  in  amount  of  space  covered  and  a  certain  magnifi- 
cence of  effect,  they  were  notable,  and  Luca  Giordano  — 
the  latest  Neapolitan  of  importance  —  showed,  in  an  aston- 
ishing manner,  to  what  an  extent  decorative  painting  may 
be  carried. 

Neapolitan  artists  were  frequently  cavaliers,  and  as  skil- 
ful with  weapons  as  with  brushes.  Here,  as  in  other  parts 
of  Italy,  painters  were  often  knighted,  and  led,  as  a  rule, 
wild  and  adventurous  lives.  Michael  Angelo  da  Cara- 
vaggio,  in  spite  of  his  well-known  dissolute  life,  was  deco- 
rated with  the  Maltese  cross  on  account  of  his  picture  of 
the  Beheading  of  John  the  Baptist. 

Mattia  Preti,  a  Calabrian,  belonged  to  the  Order  of  Hos- 
pitallers. His  manner  of  painting  differed  from  time  to 
time,  and  was  influenced  by  what  he  saw  in  his  travels. 
He  was  constantly  involved  in  disreputable  quarrels  ;  es- 
caping from  one  in  Rome,  he  went  to  Malta,  where  he  again 
avoided  arrest  by  sailing  for  Leghorn.  He  then  went  to 
Spain,  and  after  a  time  reached  Northern  Italy,  and  painted 
pictures  in  several  different  cities  ;  coming  again  to  Rome, 
he  had  another  affair  which  made  escape  his  only  hope. 


106  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

He  now  turned  towards  his  native  land,  and  reaching 
Naples,  with  no  passport,  at  a  time  when  there  was  a  strict 
quarantine,  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned.  The  sanitary 
committee  desired  his  death ;  but  the  viceroy  investigated 
his  case,  and  by  chance  a  man  who  had  known  Fra  Mattia 
at  Rome  defended  him,  and  his  offer  to  paint  a  votive  pic- 
ture for  the  city  gate  in  exchange  for  his  liberty  was 
accepted.  This  work  has  .disappeared  ;  but  if  we  can  trust 
existing  accounts  of  it,  he  portrayed  the  dragging  off  of 
the  victims  of  the  plague  with  great  truthfulness.  After 
many  quarrels,  and  much  trouble  over  his  work  in  some 
of  the  churches  of  Naples,  Fra  Mattia  was  summoned  to 
Malta.  He  lived  there  forty  years,  and  died  at  the  age  of 
eighty-six,  having  painted  many  pictures  in  the  church  of 
S.  John  and  in  that  of  Citta  Vecchia.  He  lived  an  indus- 
trious, exemplary  life,  gave  his  earnings  in  charity,  was 
made  the  Commander  of  the  Order  of  Syracuse,  and  was 
a  most  popular  knight.  He  was  buried  before  the  entrance 
of  the  vestry  in  the  church  of  S.  John. 

At  the  very  beginning  of  the  century,  by  the  command 
of  Philip  III.,  and  under  the  viceroy,  the  Count  of  Lemos, 
the  Royal  Palace  was  begun.  Domenico  Fontana  was  the 
architect.  He  had  already  executed  many  fine  works  in 
Rome,  and  filled  that  city  with  his  fame,  thereby  exciting 
the  enmity  of  other  artists  to  such  a  degree  that  on  the 
death  of  his  patron,  Pope  Sixtus,  he  was  glad  to  go  to 
Naples  at  the  request  of  the  Count  of  Miranda.  He  had 
designed  and  built  many  other  edifices  before  beginning 
the  Palazzo  Reale,  which  has  been  called  his  masterpiece. 
No  proper  judgment  of  what  it  was  originally  can  now  be 
made  ;  the  facade  alone  can  claim  to  be  in  any  just  sense 
the  work  of  Fontana,  and  even  that  has  been  much 
changed. 

In  1607,  under  the  viceroy  Count  de  Benevente,  a  street 
was  built  to  the  Poggio  Reale.  It  was  a  long,  straight 


PHILIP  III.   AND  PHILIP  IV.  107 

road  beyond  the  Porta  Capuana,  leading  to  the  palace  built 
by  Alfonso  II.  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Here 
were  gardens  extending  to  the  sea ;  and  the  Due  de  Guise 
in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  thought  it  one  of 
the  most  lovely  spots  in  the  world.  This  street  was  bor- 
dered by  trees  and  ornamented  by  fountains,  and  became 
a  favorite  promenade  with  the  Neapolitans. 

In  1615  a  second  Count  of  Lemos  changed  the  viceregal 
stables  of  Ossuna  into  a  university.  In  1624  the  Duke 
of  Alva  erected  a  Lazaretto  at  Nisida,  and  in  1634  the 
Count  of  Monterey  built  the  bridge  of  Chiaja,  by  means  of 
which  the  quarter  of  Pizzofalcone  was  connected  with  the 
hill  on  which  stands  the  castle  of  S.  Elmo,  by  way  of  the 
Strada  Monte  di  Dio  and  the  Strada  Ponte  di  Chiaja. 
Such  were  the  important  public  works  in  Naples  during 
the  first  half  of  this  century  ;  few  and  unimportant  as  they 
seem  when  compared  with  other  periods  in  its  history, 
they  are  almost  momentous  when  we  remember  the  des- 
perate condition  of  the  government  and  the  people  during 
this  epoch.  Well  did  Guidiccioni  portray  the  low  estate 
to  which  Naples  had  fallen  under  the  Spanish  yoke,  when, 
late  in  the  sixteenth  century,  he  wrote :  — 

"  From  ignominious  sleep,  where  age  on  age 
Thy  torpid  faculties  have  slumbering  lain, 
Mine  Italy,  enslaved,  ay,  more,  insane,  — 
Wake,  and  behold  thy  wounds  with  noble  rage  1 
Rouse,  and  with  generous  energy  engage 
Once  more  thy  long-lost  freedom  to  obtain  ; 
The  path  of  honor  yet  once  more  regain, 
And  leave  no  blot  upon  my  country's  page  1 
Thy  haughty  lords,  who  trample  o'er  thee  now, 
Have  worn  the  yoke  which  bows  to  earth  thy  neck, 
And  graced  thy  triumphs  in  thy  days  of  fame. 
Alas !  thine  own  most  deadly  foe  art  thou, 
Unhappy  land  !  thy  spoils  the  invader  deck, 
While  self-wrought  chains  thine  infamy  proclaim !  " 


CHAPTER   Y. 

MASANIELLO'S  REBELLION. 
1647-1700. 

IT  is  a  curious  coincidence  that  exactly  one  hundred 
years  elapsed  after  the  Neapolitans  rebelled  against 
the  attempt  to  establish  the  Inquisition  among  them  — 
under  the  government  of  Don  Pedro  di  Toledo  —  when 
their  patience  under  oppression  and  suffering  again  gave 
way,  and  they  sought  relief  in  insurrection.  This  occurred 
when,  under  the  Duke  of  Arcos,  all  kinds  of  food  were 
subject  to  heavy  taxes;  and  that  on  fruit  was  especially 
cruel  to  a  people  accustomed  to  a  cooling  diet,  requiring 
no  cooking,  which  had  been  abundant  and  almost  with- 
out price.  It  is  also  singular  that  Tommaso  Aniello  of 
Sorrento  should  have  been  a  leader  in  1547,  and  a  second 
of  the  same  name,  from  Amain,  not  known  to  be  a  rela- 
tive of  the  first,  should  have  been  so  prominent  in  1647 
that  the  rebellion  is  known  as  that  of  Masaniello. 

The  diary  of  Francesco  Capecelatro  affords  the  fullest 
and  most  generally  accepted  account  of  this  rebellion. 
According  to  his  story  there  had  been  an  unusual  spirit  of 
unrest  in  Naples,  when  the  news  of  an  insurrection  in 
Palermo  greatly  excited  the  Neapolitans.  Placards  were 
posted  all  over  the  city  threatening  revolution  if  the 
gabelles  were  not  taken  off.  The  viceroy  was  stopped  on 
his  way  to  church,  and  surrounded  by  a  crowd  from  which 
he  was  extricated  with  difficulty.  He  made  specious 
promises,  threw  the  blame  on  the  nobles  who  ordered  the 
taxes,  and  could  not  have  apprehended  the  seriousness  of 


MASANIELLO'S  REBELLION.  109 

the  situation,  since  he  sent  the  greater  part  of  the  foreign 
troops  into  Lombardy;  his  thoughts  being  so  occupied 
with  the  danger  from  the  French  in  Northern  Italy  that 
the  peril  which  threatened  the  Spanish  rule  in  Naples 
escaped  his  notice. 

Tommaso  Aniello,  or  Masaniello,  the  able  opponent  of 
this  Spanish  Duke,  was  twenty-seven  years  old.  He  was 
of  medium  height,  well-made,  vigorous,  and  alert ;  his  fair 
hair  hung  in  curls  about  his  head  and  neck ;  his  face  was 
grave,  but  his  manner  was  cheerful  and  his  brilliant  black 
eyes  were  fearless  in  expression;  his  fisherman's  dress, 
although  of  a  well-chosen  color,  lent  no  advantage  to  his 
appearance,  and  the  impression  of  unusual  character  which 
he  made  on  others  must  have  resulted  from  his  genuine 
claim  to  consideration.  Masaniello  had  married  Berar- 
dina  Pisa  in  1641 ;  and  so  greatly  had  the  pair  suffered 
from  poverty  that  he  could  not  go  out  to  fish,  but  was 
forced  to  pick  up  a  few  coins  here  and  there  by  services 
far  beneath  even  his  humble  occupation. 

In  the  midst  of  their  distress  Berardina  had  attempted 
to  bring  into  the  city  a  bundle  of  flour,  wrapped  up  and 
carried  like  a  baby ;  she  was  detected  and  imprisoned  for 
eight  days,  while  the  flour  paid  the  fine  by  which  she  was 
liberated.  Masaniello  deeply  loved  his  wife;  and  this 
experience,  added  to  insults  which  he  frequently  received, 
so  wrought  upon  his  mind  and  imagination  that  he 
determined  to  attempt  the  liberation  of  his  people,  pre- 
ferring death  while  fighting  in  a  just  cause  to  starvation 
for  his  wife,  his  friends,  and  himself. 

At  times  the  desperate  acts  of  the  people  increased  the 
cruelty  of  the  tax-gatherers  and  other  officials ;  the  blow- 
ing up  of  the  custom-house  in  the  market-place  had  this 
effect,  while  it  but  too  clearly  showed  the  dangerous 
condition  of  the  public  pulse.  In  July,  on  the  fete  of 
the  Madonna  of  Carmel,  it  was  the  custom  for  a  band  of 


110  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

about  four  hundred  lads,  of  the  poorest  classes,  to  make 
an  assault  on  a  castle  of  wood  and  canvas  erected  in  the 
market-place.  The  boys  were  drilled  for  their  part  in 
this  sham  warfare,  and  in  1647  Masaniello  was  their  chief 
and  trainer.  He  was  doubtless  looking  forward  to  this 
fete  as  a  favorable  time  to  incite  the  people  to  a  demon- 
stration, using  his  band  of  boys  as  a  nucleus  for  a  larger 
and  more  effective  force. 

But  he  was  not  destined  to  await  his  opportunity  so 
long.  On  Sunday,  July  7,  a  serious  quarrel  arose 
between  the  fruit-sellers  from  Pozzuoli  and  the  buyers  at 
Naples,  concerning  the  division  of  the  taxes  between 
them.  The  viceroy,  hearing  of  the  disturbance,  sent  the 
deputy  of  the  people  to  quell  the  excitement;  and  this 
officer  found  himself  in  the  midst  of  a  great  tumult. 
Masaniello  had  brought  his  troop  to  the  market-place  for 
a  grand  review ;  a  crowd  had  gathered  to  see  it,  and  the 
quarrels  of  the  fruit-sellers  had  attracted  still  greater 
numbers.  The  deputy  could  make  no  impression;  the 
tax-gatherers  insisted  on  their  dues,  and  when  they 
undertook  to  weigh  the  fruit,  a  general  melee  ensued. 
The  rabble  first  threw  the  fruit,  and  then  hurled  stones 
at  the  officers,  set  fire  to  such  ruins  of  the  custom-house 
as  the  explosion  had  left,  burned  the  accounts,  and,  in 
short,  inaugurated  the  insurrection.  The  deputy  escaped 
to  bear  the  news  to  the  viceroy,  who  resolved  to  try 
leniency,  and  despatched  two  nobles  to  the  market-place, 
who  exceeded  his  commands,  and  assured  the  people  that 
the  gabelles  would  be  abolished,  and  that  they  might 
rejoice  and  be  content. 

The  people  listened  attentively,  and  when  the  message 
was  ended,  Masaniello,  who  had  mounted  a  horse,  ex- 
claimed, "  Now  let  us  go  to  the  Palace. "  The  crowd  had 
provided  themselves  with  such  weapons  as  they  could  lay 
hands  on,  and  made  a  strange  procession  of  old  and  young, 


MASANIELLO'S  KEBELLION.  Ill 

ragged  and  bare-footed,  who  whistled  and  sung  and  began 
to  be  excited  by  the  mere  realization  of  their  brute  force. 
Arrived  at  the  palace,  this  passionate  multitude  thronged 
its  court,  shouting  again  and  again,  "Long  life  to  the 
King  of  Spain !  down  with  the  gabelles !  "  Addresses 
were  made  by  some  of  the  nobles,  promising  the  people 
many  benefits,  but  not  all  that  were  demanded.  The 
viceroy,  after  showing  himself  on  a  balcony,  made  his 
retreat,  and  after  many  dangers  and  narrow  escapes 
reached  a  convent,  being  indebted  to  the  bravery  of  a 
few  friends  who  had  protected  him,  and  afterwards  saved 
themselves  with  difficulty. 

The  mob  furiously  strove  to  batter  down  the  gates  of  the 
convent,  when,  fortunately,  the  Archbishop  of  Naples, 
Ascanio  Filomarino,  appeared,  and  having  great  influence 
with  the  people,  was  able  to  hold  them  in  check  until  he 
could  send  to  the  viceroy  for  a  written  promise  that  the 
taxes  on  food  should  be  abolished,  and  the  bread  be  of 
better  quality. 

Meantime  the  viceroy  had  fled  to  the  castle  of  S.  Elmo, 
and  his  wife  and  children  to  Castel  Nuovo.  All  the 
provisions  that  could  be  gathered  were  sent  to  these  two 
strongholds,  and  the  soldiers  within  reach  were  massed 
in  the  barracks  on  Pizzofalcone,  a  proper  number  being 
detailed  for  guard  duty  in  the  park  of  the  Palazzo  Reale. 
These  preparations  made,  the  Duke  of  Arcos  awaited 
further  developments  with  all  the  equanimity  at  his  com- 
mand; but  it  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  the  wrath  of  a 
proud  Spaniard  thus  set  at  defiance  by  a  people  whom  he 
despised,  and  who  were  essentially  as  disgusting  as  he  and 
his  class  considered  them, —  as  vile,  let  us  say,  as  he  and 
other  Spanish  viceroys  had  made  them. 

Night  brought  new  horrors;  the  churches  were  filled 
with  monks  and  others  who  went  in  processions  singing 
litanies  and  praying  for  peace,  but  were  not  permitted  to 


112  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

pass  into  the  streets.  The  mob  broke  open  the  prisons, 
and  set  the  inmates  free,  while  all  robbers  and  murderers 
who  were  concealed  in  the  city  left  their  hiding-places. 
The  archives  of  the  prisons  were  burned,  the  toll-booths 
destroyed,  and  after  going  from  one  gate  to  another  the 
rabble  attacked  the  houses  of  those  who  had  made  money 
by  carrying  out  oppressive  laws.  The  rebels  met  no  resist- 
ance ;  the  owners  of  these  houses  thought  only  of  escape, 
and  paid  any  price  to  boatmen  who  rowed  them  to  places 
of  safety  along  the  coast.  The  fine  furnishing,  pictures, 
and  plate  were  thrown  in  a  heap  and  burned,  and  a  rebel 
detected  in  concealing  a  jewel  or  any  object  of  value  was 
compelled  to  throw  it  into  the  fire. 

The  people  so  urgently  needed  arms  that  they  even 
attempted  to  seize  those  at  S.  Lorenzo;  but  the  Spanish 
garrison  fired  .on  the  mob,  and  thus  excited  it  to  deeds  of 
greater  cruelty.  The  city  presented  a  frightful  spectacle ; 
the  confusion  became  terrific,  revealed  as  it  was  by  con- 
flagrations in  various  quarters. 

As  yet  there  was  no  leader,  and  the  rebels  were  like 
children  wearied  from  unusual  play,  and  in  need  of  an 
authority  to  direct  their  steps.  They  gathered  in  the 
market-place,  where,  at  midnight,  four  masked  men  ap- 
peared wearing  monks'  robes,  and  were  soon  surrounded 
by  the  very  dregs  of  the  populace.  One  of  these  was  Masa- 
niello;  a  second  was  Giulio  Genuine,  who  from  first  to 
last  fanned  the  flame  of  passion  in  the  people,  and  in  every 
way  excited  their  thirst  for  revenge,  while  he  so  skilfully 
concealed  his  part  that  long  after  this  evening  the  viceroy 
habitually  confided  in  him  and  acted  on  his  advice. 

Genuine  at  once  addressed  the  people,  encouraging  them 
to  persevere  in  their  rebellion  until  the  viceroy  should 
comply  with  their  demands.  Dwelling  especially  upon 
their  need  of  arms,  he  so  wrought  upon  their  passions 
that  before  day  came  they  broke  into  the  shops  where 


MASANIELLO'S  REBELLION.  113 

weapons  were  sold,  seized  all  they  could  find,  and  pos- 
sessed themselves  of  several  pieces  of  light  artillery. 
During  this  dreadful  night  Masaniello  was  first  spoken 
of  as  the  leader  of  the  insurrection. 

The  morning  of  July  8  revealed  the  vast  change  which 
had  occurred  in  the  affairs  of  Naples  since  the  preceding 
sunrise.  Then  the  people  muttered  under  their  breath; 
now  they  shouted  aloud  and  stated  their  ultimatum, — 
cheap  food  and  good  food,  or  anarchy  and  the  horrors  that 
follow  in  its  train.  But  a  day  has  passed  since  the  proud 
viceroy  stood  with  his  heel  on  the  neck  of  the  starving, 
suffering  people ;  now  he  trembles  in  terror  in  his  hiding- 
place,  ready  to  promise  anything  that  is  demanded,  if  so 
his  life  can  be  assured. 

As  the  day  passed,  the  tumultuous  crowds  throughout  the 
city  were  greatly  increased  by  the  country  people.  Dis- 
contented peasants,  vagabonds,  and  robbers,  and  a  multi- 
tude of  half-naked  women  and  children  suddenly  appeared, 
as  if  they  arose  from  the  very  stones  of  the  street,  and 
added  their  groans,  shouts,  and  hisses  to  the  terrific  noises 
that  already  existed.  Armed  with  all  sorts  of  imple- 
ments, these  crowds  surged  hither  and  thither  doing  in- 
finite mischief,  and  occasionally  firing  a  magazine  or 
committing  some  act  fatal  to  their  own  numbers,  thereby 
increasing  their  violence. 

Meantime  the  Duke  of  Arcos  held  a  council,  and  deter- 
mined to  send  an  embassy  to  treat  with  the  people. 
Diomed  Carafa,  Duke  of  Maddaloni,  and  several  other 
noblemen  rode  to  the  market-place,  where  the  Duke 
addressed  the  people  with  all  the  persuasiveness  at  his 
command,  and  in  the  name  of  the  viceroy  promised  free 
trade  in  food  and  a  general  pardon  to  all  who  laid  down 
their  arms  and  returned  to  their  homes  and  occupations. 
The  people  listened  only  to  reply  in  loud  shouts,  "  No  lying 
promises!  we  will  have  the  privileges  of  Charles  V.," 


114  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

which  meant,  "We  will  have  no  taxes,  and  the  people 
shall  share  equally  with  the  nobles  in  the  government." 
The  Duke  of  Maddaloni  could  get  no  satisfaction  beyond 
this,  and  rode  away,  promising  to  bring  them  the  veritable 
document  of  Charles  V. 

Masaniello  did  not  leave  the  market-place,  and  in  con- 
sultation with  his  advisers  made  a  list  of  the  palaces  and 
houses  to  be  destroyed.  At  evening  the  conflagrations 
began,  to  the  infinite  satisfaction  of  the  mob,  who  shouted, 
"We  now  burn  our  own  blood;  so  may  those  who  have 
sucked  it  from  us  burn  in  hell !  "  Again,  as  on  the  pre- 
vious evening,  the  processions  of  monks  appeared  only  to 
be  insulted  and  driven  back,  while  the  churches  were 
filled  by  suppliants  for  a  divine  interposition  which 
should  save  their  city  and  their  lives. 

On  July  9  the  condition  was  more  frightful  still,  and 
the  destruction  of  property  such  as  makes  one  sigh  in 
reading  of  it  even  now.  Splendid  works  of  art,  all  kinds 
of  rich  furniture,  tapestries  and  stuffs,  and  even  casks  of 
coins,  boxes  of  pearls,  and  other  priceless  treasures  were 
cast  into  the  flames,  along  with  lap  dogs  and  other  pets, 
while  fine  horses  were  stabbed  in  their  stalls;  and  this 
vandalism  was  raging  in  all  the  surrounding  regions  as 
well  as  in  Naples.  From  many  castles  tongues  of  forked 
flames  ascended,  leaving  blackened  ruins  and  smouldering 
ashes  to  mark  the  spots  where  they  had  so  proudly  raised 
their  massive  towers,  as  if  defying  the  world  to  conquer 
them. 

In  spite  of  all  these  horrors  the  viceroy  still  hoped  for 
a  reconciliation  with  the  people,  and  this  hope  was  the 
only  refuge  from  despair.  Cowardly  as  it  seems  in  one 
view,  in  another  it  required  great  courage  to  send  his 
friends  to  face  the  hideous  multitude  and  make  promises 
in  his  name.  Some  of  his  ambassadors  were  surrounded 
by  the  mob,  and  only  escaped  by  making  the  most  abject 


MASANIELLO'S  KEBELLION.  115 

submission  to  its  demands.  The  second  time  that  the 
Duke  of  Maddaloni  endeavored  to  be  heard  he  carried  a 
manifesto  declaring  that  all  criminals  should  be  pardoned, 
and  all  taxes  taken  off  that  had  been  imposed  since  the 
time  of  Charles  V. 

Suddenly  Masaniello  sprung  upon  the  Duke,  seized  him 
by  his  belt  and  his  long  hair,  and  tore  him  from  his  horse ; 
others  bound  his  hands  tightly  with  a  rope,  and  gave  him 
to  the  keeping  of  two  of  their  leader's  most  trusted  aids. 
By  this  act  Masaniello  annihilated  a  superstition  that  had 
controlled  the  people  for  centuries;  no  longer  were  the 
persons  of  the  nobles  to  be  respected,  and  never  again 
could  they  be  considered  sacred  as  before. 

The  viceroy's  amazement  at  this  deed  was  inexpressible, 
and,  blaming  himself  for  sending  men  into  such  dangers, 
he  hastily  despatched  a  prior  to  beg  for  the  Duke's  release. 
The  people  answered  him  with  renewed  shouts  for  the 
privileges  of  Charles  V.  However,  the  Duke  escaped, — 
by  the  aid  of  one  of  his  jailers  for  whom  he  had  once 
done  a  favor, —  and  after  many  adventures  joined  his  family 
in  a  place  of  safety  to  which  they  had  retreated. 

The  Duke  of  Arcos  now  sought  the  aid  of  Cardinal  Filo- 
marino.  He  did  this  unwillingly,  as  the  Spaniards  dis- 
trusted the  Neapolitan  pastors,  with  whom  they  were  con- 
stantly at  war,  and  especially  this  man,  who  had  been  the 
persistent  friend  of  the  people.  The  Cardinal  assured 
the  viceroy  that  his  mission  to  the  market-place  would  be 
worse  than  useless  if  he  could  not  show  them  the  old 
document  of  which  they  had  heard,  together  with  a  reli- 
able promise  that  it  should  be  ratified.  On  no  other  con- 
dition would  he  go.  The  parchment  was  found;  and  thus 
armed,  the  Cardinal  proceeded  on  his  mission.  He  was 
welcomed  heartily,  but  was  soon  convinced  of  the  impos- 
sibility of  peace;  he  feared  the  total  destruction  of  the 
city,  and  resolved  to  remain  in  the  midst  of  the  people. 


116  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

The  rebellion  had  gained  strength  that  day,  and  another 
night  of  horrors  was  approaching.  The  mob  had  posses- 
sion of  S.  Lorenzo  and  the  artillery;  two  divisions  of 
troops  had  been  made  prisoners,  and  a  list  of  thirty-six 
houses  to  be  burned  had  been  made  out;  in  fact,  many 
were  already  in  flames,  as  well  as  vast  piles  of  household 
goods  and  decorations.  Hundreds  of  strange,  half-savage, 
half-naked  creatures  from  the  lowest  parts  of  the  city, 
and  even  from  caves  and  grottos,  danced  about  these 
holocausts,  screaming  and  adding  their  fiendish  cries  to 
the  unceasing  din  of  ringing  bells.  A  procession  bore  an 
effigy  of  Philip  IV.  through  the  streets  crying,  "Long  life 
to  the  King  of  Spain,"  while  the  royal  standard,  together 
with  that  of  the  people,  waved  above  S.  Lorenzo. 

Meantime  the  Cardinal  Filomarino  met  with  endless 
difficulties  in  his  negotiations  with  the  leaders  of  the 
rebellion  in  the  Carmelite  convent,  to  which  he  had  re- 
tired. Some  of  the  rebels  even  demanded  that  the  castle 
of  S.  Elmo  should  be  surrendered  to  them,  and  when  the 
words  "pardon"  and  "rebellion"  were  read  in  the  mes- 
sage of  the  viceroy,  they  were  answered  by  angry  declara- 
tions that  there  was  no  question  of  pardons,  as  no  rebels 
existed.  The  Cardinal  exhausted  himself  to  no  purpose, 
and  the  sun  rose  on  another  day  of  wrath. 

The  news  of  the  escape  of  the  Duke  of  Maddaloni  mad- 
dened still  more  the  already  furious  mob,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Duke's  property  was  at  once  decreed;  but  his 
palace  was  found  to  be  filled  with  bravoes  in  his  employ, 
who  fired  on  the  people,  who  quietly  deferred  the  ven- 
geance they  did  not  fail  to  take  later. 

During  these  troublous  days  Masaniello  developed 
rapidly,  acquiring  such  coolness  and  ability  to  lead  and 
command  others  as  is  rarely  found  in  older  men  of  wide 
experience;  and  it  began  to  appear  that,  wild  as  were  the 
more  apparent  deeds  of  the  rebellion,  an  organization 


MASANIELLO'S  REBELLION.  117 

was  forming  of  which  the  first  positive  proof  was  an  edict 
calling  an  assemblage  in  the  market-place.  Thither  the 
crowds  hastened,  savage  men  and  repulsive  women,  all 
in  filth  and  rags.  A  procession  was  led  by  Masaniello, 
whose  followers,  nearly  all  armed,  were  estimated  at 
114,000.  Usually  in  his  fisherman's  shirt  and  stockings 
of  white  linen,  but  at  times  barefooted  and  bareheaded, 
Masaniello  had  an  authority  such  as  proud  and  magnifi- 
cent rulers  often  lack.  His  absolute  decrees  were  exe- 
cuted with  promptness  and  exactitude.  Filomarino  said 
of  him :  — 

"  He  shows  discretion,  wisdom,  and  moderation ;  in  short, 
lie  has  become  a  king  in  this  town,  and  the  most  glorious  and 
triumphant  in  the  world.  He  who  Las  not  seen  him  cannot 
imagine  him ;  and  he  who  has  cannot  describe  him  exactly  to 
others." 

While  the  meeting  in  the  market-place  was  in  progress, 
the  Cardinal  received  a  message  from  the  viceroy  consent- 
ing to  an  agreement  which  had  been  proposed;  and 
Masaniello  and  others  proceeded  to  the  Carmelite  monas- 
tery to  complete  the  conditions  of  the  negotiation.  Sud- 
denly a  shot  was  fired ;  Masaniello  hastened  to  the  gate, 
crying,  "  Treason ! "  while  ineffectual  shots  were  repeated 
behind  him.  The  market-place  was  soon  the  scene  of  a 
fierce  struggle  between  the  people  and  about  three  hun- 
dred banditti,  who  had  suddenly  appeared  on  the  scene, 
having  been  sent  by  the  Duke  of  Maddaloni  to  avenge  the 
insults  he  had  received  from  Masaniello.  A  frightful 
carnage  ensued ;  and  even  within  the  convent  many  were 
dying,  the  Cardinal  not  being  able  to  confess  and  absolve 
them  as  fast  as  his  services  were  required. 

Masaniello  had  learned  from  an  expiring  bandit  that 
Giuseppe  Carafa,  a  brother  of  the  Duke  of  Maddaloni,  and 
his  cousin,  the  Prior  of  the  Johannites  of  Rocella,  were 


118  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

in  the  convent  of  S.  Maria  la  Nuova.  A  party  of  attack 
was  organized,  and  difficult  as  was  the  ascent  of  the 
height  over  the  steep,  slippery  ways  that  led  to  the  mon- 
astery, four  hundred  armed  men  soon  surrounded  it. 
Finding  the  gates  closed,  they  set  fire  to  them,  thus  forcing 
the  monks  to  throw  them  open.  The  mob  soon  filled  the 
corridors  and  refectory,  crying  out  for  the  chief  of  the 
bandits. 

A  well-known  servant  of  Carafa  was  discovered,  which 
convinced  the  people  that  his  master  was  not  far  away ; 
but  during  the  few  moments  gained  by  closing  the  gates 
the  relatives  of  the  Duke  had  fled  by  a  back  way  into  a 
mean  street,  and  the  Prior  reached  a  house  where  he 
dressed  himself  in  the  garb  of  a  woman  and  so  escaped  to 
safety.  Giuseppe  Carafa  was  less  fortunate.  He  soon 
realized  that  he  was  pursued,  and  ran  into  the  cottage 
of  a  low  woman,  who  made  a  feint  of  concealing  him 
while  in  the  act  of  betraying  him,  in  spite  of  his  promises 
of  untold  treasures  if  she  but  saved  his  life.  He  was 
seized  and  dragged  away ;  and  though  he  offered  twenty 
thousand  ducats  for  his  life,  no  one  listened,  and  he  was 
murdered  in  the  Piazza  del  Cerrigl.io, —  a  place  of  bad 
omen,  where  the  crown  fell  from  the  head  of  Louis  of 
Taranto  when  on  his  way  to  the  coronation  of  Joanna  I., 
—  and  his  head  severed  from  his  body,  while  all  sorts  of 
horrible  indecencies  were  perpetrated  on  his  corpse.  He 
was  the  first  noble  slain  in  this  rebellion,  and  few  were 
more  hated ;  he  was  of  a  rash  temper,  and  had  committed 
many  crimes  himself,  besides  employing  others  to  do  des- 
perate deeds  for  him.  Masaniello  made  an  address  to  the 
pallid  head,  and  had  it  set  up  in  the  centre  of  the  market- 
place, with  seventeen  others,  above  which  was  a  tablet 
inscribed  "  This  is  the  penalty  for  Traitors. " 

Masaniello  gave  Michele  de  Santis,  who  had  cut  off  the 
head  of  Carafa,  a  thousand  ducats,  and  promised  four 


MASANIELLO'S  REBELLION.  119 

times  that  sum  for  the  head  of  the  Duke  of  Maddaloni. 
Many  of  his  most  valuable  possessions  had  been  left  in 
the  convent  of  S.  Maria  della  Stella  for  safe  keeping ;  all 
were  now  dragged  out  and  gathered  in  the  market-place, 
where  they  were  exposed  to  sun  and  dirt,  but  were  not 
burned,  as  so  many  other  treasures  had  been.  De  Reu- 
mont  says :  — 

"  The  most  beautiful  curtains  of  gold  brocade,  and  wrought 
with  stuffs,  Arras  carpets  with  compositions  of  many  figures, 
rare  pictures,  vessels  of  silver  and  gold  adorned  with  jewels, 
magnificent  carriages  and  noble  horses,  and  a  quantity  of  gold, 
—  everything  was  brought  out." 

The  insurrection  was  at  its  height.  The  populace  were 
like  very  fiends  of  hell,  and  the  number  of  murders  was 
enormous.  The  more  the  power  of  Masaniello  was 
strengthened,  the  more  was  that  of  the  viceroy  weakened. 
His  position  was  one  of  rapidly  increasing  danger,  for 
aside  from  other  perils  starvation  was  looming  up  before 
him.  He  disowned  a  knowledge  of  the  Carafa  plot  in 
writing,  and  besought  the  Cardinal  to  hasten  an  accom- 
modation. This  was  easier  said  than  done.  The  whole 
city  was  becoming  so  dangerous,  and  pistols  and  daggers 
were  so  readily  used  in  the  streets,  that  the  fisherman  was 
forced  to  take  measures  to  restrain  the  people.  Lamps  or 
torches  were  ordered  to  be  kept  burning  before  every 
dwelling ;  long  cloaks  and  such  garments  as  might  conceal 
weapons  were  forbidden;  women  were  not  permitted  to 
wear  the  garde  infante,  and  even  the  Cardinals  put  off  their 
robes.  The  Spaniards  were  masters  of  the  castles  and  of 
Pizzofalcone,  and  the  people  were  masters  of  the  town. 
The  people  knew  that  the  Spaniards  could,  by  use  of  the 
artillery,  level  the  whole  city  and  destroy  thousands,  but 
in  their  desperation  even  that  seemed  preferable  to  a  pro- 
longation of  such  lives  as  they  had  lived.  On  the  other 


120  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

hand,  the  viceroy  wished  to  save  the  city  if  possible,  and 
he  realized,  better  than  his  enemies,  the  weakness  of  his 
garrisons,  and  the  difficulty  he  should  have  in  increasing 
his  stock  of  provisions,  already  painfully  small.  His 
great  anxiety  was  to  make  some  terms  with  the  rebels ; 
almost  any  terms  which  would  put  an  end  to  the  present 
condition,  and  give  him  an  opportunity  to  take  such  steps 
as  would  enable  him  to  break  what  he  might  well  consider 
an  enforced  agreement. 

But  even  the  wrath  of  man  may  be  satiated ;  and  after 
five  days  of  horrible  fury  and  bloodshed  it  was  announced 
in  the  Church  of  the  Carmelites  that  the  negotiations  had 
been  satisfactorily  ended.  With  great  difficulty  Masa- 
niello  had  also  been  persuaded  to  have  a  conference  with 
the  viceroy,  as  it  was  fitting  for  the  leader  of  the  people 
to  do. 

The  fisherman  was  strangely  distrustful  of  his  advisers. 
He  said  he  saw  the  gallows  looming  up  before  him,  and 
insisted  on  being  shrived  before  the  meeting;  and  even 
after  that  the  Cardinal  had  great  difficulty  in  persuading 
him  to  go  at  all.  He  refused  to  enter  the  castle,  and 
would  only  go  to  the  palace,  and  before  setting  out  he 
sent  to  know  how  many  armed  men  he  could  rely  on.  He 
was  told  that  he  had  140,000,  and  could  double  the 
number  if  only  arms  could  be  had. 

One  cause  for  the  apparent  indecision  of  the  Captain- 
General  was  his  physical  condition.  After  the  assault 
of  the  bandits  there  had  been  a  report  that  the  springs  at 
Poggio  Reale  were  poisoned,  and  Masaniello  had  so  feared 
death  by  that  means  that  he  had  suffered  much  from  thirst, 
and  was  almost  starved.  On  this  day  he  had  taken  but  a 
bit  of  bread  and  wine  which  the  Cardinal's  physician 
had  first  tasted.  At  length  Masaniello  began  to  pre- 
pare for  the  audience,  and  late  in  the  day  all  was  in 
readiness. 


MASANIELLO'S  REBELLION.  121 

The  Cardinal  entered  his  carriage  with  his  steward,  the 
traitorous  Genuino,  and  two  others  of  his  suite.  Masa- 
niello  rode  on  one  side,  and  the  deputy  of  the  people  on 
the  other.  The  fisherman  was  dressed  in  silver  brocade 
with  a  jewelled  sword  by  his  side,  while  his  head,  usually 
bare,  was  covered  by  a  white  hat  with  plumes. 

Doinenico  Gargiulo,  called  Micco  Spadone,  painted 
pictures  of  many  scenes  in  this  rebellion.  He  represented 
Masaniello  in  this  costume,  with  a  medallion  of  the 
Madonna  of  Carmel  on  his  breast,  riding  at  the  head  of  a 
concourse  of  men  and  boys.  His  white  horse  gallops  past 
the  market-place,  where  bloody  heads  are  ranged  around 
a  marble  pedestal,  and  the  gibbet  and  wheel  await  their 
victims. 

As  the  procession  moved  towards  the  palace,  many 
thousands  assembled,  and  the  armed  bands  lowered  their 
colors  before  the  Cardinal  and  their  chief.  Over  the  gate 
of  the  palace  of  the  Prince  of  Cellamare,  in  the  square  of 
the  castle,  effigies  of  Charles  V.  and  Philip  IV.  were 
placed,  beneath  a  canopy.  Here  Masaniello  stopped, 
spread  out  the  old  and  new  charters  before  him,  and 
assured  the  multitude  that  everything  was  properly  settled. 
Shouts  of  "  Long  life  to  the  King  and  his  most  faithful 
people  of  Naples ! "  rent  the  air.  Masaniello  saw  that  the 
courtyard  was  full  of  Spanish  and  German  soldiers. 
Spanish  infantry  was  drawn  up  at  the  entrance  to  the 
square,  so  that  the  carriage  passed  with  difficulty,  and 
ramparts  of  earth  had  been  thrown  up  in  various  direc- 
tions. While  he  heard  words  of  peace,  he  saw  such  signs 
of  war  as  could  not  escape  the  keen  sight  of  the  fisherman. 

The  viceroy  received  Masaniello  in  the  saloon  of  Alva ; 
and  once  in  his  presence,  the  fisherman  threw  himself  at 
the  feet  of  the  Duke,  who  raised  him  up,  embraced  him, 
and  with  him  and  the  Cardinal  retired  to  another  room. 
The  tumult  without  became  so  great  that  the  viceroy 


122  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

begged  the  chief  to  show  himself  on  a  balcony,  which  he 
did,  and  returning  to  the  room,  fell  in  a  swoon,  which 
greatly  alarmed  the  Duke,  who  feared  the  consequences 
should  anything  befall  this  man  while  in  his  company. 
But  Masaniello  soon  revived,  the  articles  of  the  treaty 
were  confirmed,  and  their  publication  in  two  days  agreed 
on.  The  viceroy  then  conducted  him  to  the  staircase, 
called  him  the  faithful  servant  of  the  King,  and  the  de- 
fender of  the  people,  gave  "him  a  gold  chain,  offered  him  a 
hand  to  kiss,  and  finally  dismissed  him  with  a  second 
embrace. 

It  was  said  that  a  peace  was  concluded ;  but  the  streets 
were  in  a  tumult,  watch-fires  were  kindled,  and  there  was 
no  seeming  of  order.  Masaniello  still  governed  the  city ; 
he  had  a  scaffold  before  his  house;  his  decrees  were 
issued  "by  the  command  of  the  illustrious  Lord,  Maso 
Aniello  of  Amalfi,  Captain-General  of  the  most  faithful 
people. "  During  the  night  a  cry  of  "  Treason  and  Ban- 
ditti!" was  raised;  and  without  a  trial  or  hearing,  more 
than  a  dozen  heads  were  cut  off  by  his  orders.  A  secre- 
tary read  to  him  petitions  presented  on  the  point  of  a 
halberd,  which  he  answered  with  the  authority  of  a  ruler. 
Prices  of  food  were  fixed,  and  many  decrees  issued  rela- 
tive to  the  smallest  matters  of  conduct  and  even  of 
costume. 

It  was  soon  apparent  that  order  and  discipline  were 
undermined  in  all  the  relations  of  life.  Employers  could 
not  rely  on  their  servants,  who  were  summoned  to  arms, 
and  even  rewarded  for  betraying  their  masters,  and  in- 
subordination was  everywhere  apparent,  when,  on  July 
13,  the  viceroy  and  Masaniello  met  in  the  cathedral  to 
publish  the  new  treaty  with  fitting  solemnity ;  and  here, 
where  so  many  scenes  important  in  the  history  of  Naples 
had  been  enacted,  the  Spanish  power  was  strangely 
humiliated. 


MASANIELLO'S  REBELLION.  123 

The  Captain-General  permitted  no  cavalier  to  accom- 
pany the  viceroy ;  he  disarmed  the  nobles,  while  the  streets 
were  lined  with  the  people  bearing  weapons.  The  Car- 
dinal was  seated  under  the  Baldachin,  and  the  treaty  con- 
firming the  old  privileges  was  read.  It  also  pardoned  all 
excesses  that  had  been  committed,  and  consented  to  the 
bearing  of  arms  by  the  people  until  the  ratification  of  the 
treaty  should  be  received  from  Madrid,  —  probably  three 
months. 

The  viceroy  confirmed  the  treaty  by  an  oath  with  his 
hand  on  the  Gospels.  The  Cardinal  sang  the  Te  Deum, 
and  the  people  shouted,  "  Long  life  to  the  King  of  Spain ! " 
Masaniello,  who  had  been  very  uneasy,  declared  that  he 
was  now  nobody,  and  attempted  to  throw  off  his  silver 
brocade  in  the  middle  of  the  cathedral;  and  this  being 
prevented,  he  threw  himself  at  the  feet  of  the  Cardinal 
and  kissed  them.  The  ceremony  ended,  the  people  fired 
their  rifles,  the  viceroy  proceeded  to  the  castle  amid  cries 
of  "Long  life  to  the  King  and  the  Duke  of  Arcos!"  and 
Masaniello  walked  home,  the  colors  being  lowered  as  he 
passed  the  soldiers. 

Now,  alas !  when  the  power  of  Masaniello  was  at  its 
height,  his  conduct  was  that  of  a  madman.  In  a  sense 
he  commands  our  respect;  for  vile  as  his  methods  had 
been,  and  much  as  we  shudder  at  his  deeds,  we  yet  admire 
the  one  man  who  had  been  brave  enough  to  lead  a  revolt 
against  Spanish  oppression.  But  the  excitement,  the 
unusual  life,  fasting,  and  fear  of  poison,  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer, and  a  morbid  dread  of  the  Duke  of  Maddaloni  which 
haunted  him  incessantly,  combined  to  produce  insanity. 
If  a  group  of  people  displeased  him,  he  rushed  into  their 
midst,  attacked  and  wounded  them.  He  expelled  a  thou- 
sand men,  women,  and  children  from  their  homes  near 
his  own,  that  he  might  build  a  palace ;  he  lavished  money 
on  most  unworthy  women,  conferred  titles,  gave  splendid 


124  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

banquets,  and  by  various  acts  that  no  sane  man  would 
commit,  he  gave  evidence  of  an  unsettled  brain;  and  in 
the  midst  of  it  all  he  suffered  agonies  of  torment  because 
he  could  not  learn  where  the  Duke  of  Maddaloni  was 
hiding,  the  thought  of  the  Duke  being  the  one  incessant 
horror  of  his  distracted  mind. 

The  letters  of  the  Duke  were  intercepted,  but  the  cipher 
which  he  used  disclosed  ..nothing.  Masaniello  cut  the 
heads  from  portraits  of  the  Duke  and  his  father,  put  them 
on  pikes,  and  ordered  them  placed  on  the  table  before  him 
while  dining  at  a  convent.  He  dressed  himself  in  the 
clothes  of  Maddaloni,  galloped  furiously  to  the  sea, 
went  on  board  the  gondola  of  the  viceroy,  and  there  made 
his  toilet  and  committed  numberless  acts  of  folly.  At 
times  he  invited  the  viceroy  to  his  banquets,  and  sent  his 
wife  and  mother,  in  very  rich  costumes,  to  pay  their 
respects  to  the  Duchess  of  Arcos ;  Berardina  said  to  her 
Highness,  "If  your  Excellency  is  the  Vicequeen  of  the 
ladies,  I  am  the  Yicequeen  of  the  women  of  the  people. " 

Masaniello  appeared  to  be  possessed  by  two  fiends,  — 
madness  and  cruelty ;  he  ordered  executions  by  the  score, 
and  two  hundred  heads  decomposing  under  the  burning 
sun  made  the  air  of  the  market-place  like  a  plague.  Many 
nobles  had  fled  from  Naples,  and  his  tyrannical  rage 
began  to  produce  its  effect  on  his  followers ;  even  those 
who  had  been  most  faithful  to  him  were  in  fear  for  their 
lives.  At  length  the  viceroy  and  some  of  the  people  came 
to  an  understanding,  and  an  approaching  feast  day,  July 
16,  was  fixed  as  the  time  when  the  power  of  Masaniello 
must  end. 

All  preparations  were  made,  and  a  strange  gloom 
seemed  to  hang  over  the  city.  The  Cardinal  officiated  in 
the  church  of  the  Carmine,  and  the  service  was  scarcely 
ended  when  Masaniello  seized  a  crucifix,  and  mounted  the 
pulpit.  His  address  was  that  of  a  madman ;  he  confessed 


MASANIELLO'S  KEBELLION.  125 

his  sins,  and  called  on  all  who  heard  him  to  do  likewise ; 
he  desired  to  show  his  emaciation  from  anxiety  and 
sleeplessness,  and  began  to  undress  himself,  but  a  monk 
seized  him  and  conducted  him  into  the  convent,  where 
he  threw  himself  on  a  bed  and  fell  asleep  from  sheer 
exhaustion. 

The  bravoes  employed  by  the  viceroy  to  murder  Masa- 
niello  had  been  in  church,  and  after  the  scandalous  scene 
which  closed  the  service  they  followed  him  to  the  convent 
and  asked  for  the  Captain-General.  The  monks,  suspect- 
ing their  errand,  and  endeavoring  to  protect  the  wretched, 
insane  sleeper,  caused  a  contention  which  aroused  Masa- 
niello,  who,  believing  that  his  friends  were  seeking  him, 
went  at  once  to  the  gates  and  showed  himself  to  the 
assassins.  Shots  were  instantly  fired;  and  as  he  fell, 
mortally  wounded,  he  cried  out,  "Oh,  ye  vagabonds!" 
His  head  was  cut  off  at  once,  and  one  of  the  bravoes, 
seizing  it  by  the  hair,  rushed  out  with  it,  shouting,  "Long 
life  to  the  King  of  Spain ! " 

The  people  in  the  streets  were  as  if  paralyzed,  and  not 
a  hand  was  raised  against  the  murderers,  who  were  soon 
protected  by  Spanish  troops.  Capecelatro  relates  that  he 
was  walking  in  the  park  with  the  Duke  of  Arcos  and 
other  gentlemen ;  the  viceroy  had  said  that  he  would  give 
ten  thousand  ducats  to  any  one  who  would  bring  Masa- 
niello  to  him,  dead  or  alive ;  and  at  that  moment  the  news 
of  what  had  been  done  was  received.  A  fierce  tumult 
ensued ;  the  head  was  carried  to  the  viceroy  on  a  pike,  and 
the  body,  after  being  roughly  treated,  was  buried  near  the 
gate  of  the  market-place.  Many  of  Masaniello's  followers 
were  arrested,  his  relatives  were  taken  into  custody,  and 
so  uncertain  was  the  viceroy  as  to  what  might  happen, 
that  he  ordered  the  fortifications  to  be  repaired  at  once. 

The  Cardinal  Filomarino  hastened  to  the  palace,  and 
with  the  viceroy  and  many  noblemen  rode  to  the  cathe- 


126  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

dral,  and  thence  to  the  market.  Everywhere  was  heard 
the  cry,  "  Long  life  to  the  King  and  to  the  Duke  of  Arcos ! " 
The  brother  and  brother-in-law  of  Masaniello  were  the 
only  men  excluded  from  the  general  pardon.  The  privi- 
leges which  had  been  granted  to  the  fisherman  were 
confirmed,  and  the  nobles  began  to  re-enter  their  homes 
on  that  very  day.  Through  the  night  all  was  quiet;  the 
people  seemed  half  stupefied ;  but  when,  in  the  morning, 
the  Commissary-General  announced  that  the  price  of  bread 
would  be  raised,  they  awoke,  and  declared  their  leader  to 
have  been  betrayed  and  assassinated. 

They  dug  up  the  corpse,  and  sewed  the  head  in  its  place ; 
they  washed  and  anointed  the  body,  and  dressed  it  in 
splendid  clothes ;  they  covered  a  bier  with  white  silk,  on 
which  their  dead  captain  was  laid,  with  his  sword  and 
staff  of  command  by  his  side.  The  officers  who  had  been 
appointed  by  Masaniello  bore  the  bier;  four  thousand 
priests  conducted  the  procession  by  the  order  of  the 
Cardinal;  muffled  drums  were  beaten,  banners  dragged 
on  the  ground,  and  the  soldiers  lowered  their  arms  as  the 
dead  captain  was  carried  past  them.  Bells  tolled  from 
every  tower,  and  windows  were  illuminated  in  all  the 
streets ;  forty  thousand  men  and  women  followed  the  bier, 
singing  litanies  and  telling  their  rosaries;  the  cortege 
left  the  Carmine  at  the  twenty-second  hour  of  the  day,  and 
only  returned  at  the  third  hour  of  the  night.  The  inter- 
ment was  made,  with  all  honorable  ceremonies,  near  the 
door  of  the  church.  No  viceroy  or  prince  —  scarcely  a 
sovereign  —  could  be  buried  with  more  imposing  rites  than 
was  the  fisherman  of  Amalfi,  Tommaso  Aniello. 

Unfortunately  for  both  Neapolitans  and  Spaniards,  the 
death  of  Masaniello  was  but  the  close  of  the  first  act  of 
the  rebellion.  He  had  led  his  followers  but  nine  days ; 
the  revolution  endured  as  many  months,  during  which  law 
and  order  were  non-existent.  Men  were  governed  by  their 


MASANIELLO'S  REBELLION.  127 

worst  passions;  reason  and  right  were  overshadowed  by 
rage  and  lawlessness,  and  a  reign  of  perfect  anarchy 
ensued.  It  soon  appeared  that  the  promises  of  the  viceroy 
were  simply  illusive;  he  was  obliged  to  retire  to  Castel 
Nuovo  a  second  time,  and  a  worse  phase  of  the  rebellion 
was  inaugurated  than  had  yet  been  experienced. 

After  all  the  horrors  that  attend  such  periods,  after  two 
months  of  the  most  frightful  confusion  and  crime,  on 
September  7,  1647,  a  second  treaty  was  made  and  con- 
firmed with  the  same  solemn  ceremonies  as  the  first.  Its 
terms  were  absolutely  disgraceful  to  the  Spaniards,  and 
cruel  to  a  large  number  of  the  nobility,  since  both  of  these 
classes  were  to  leave  Naples.  The  important  offices  were 
to  be  filled  by  native  Neapolitans,  and  the  castle  of  S. 
Elmo  and  all  other  commanding  positions  were  to  be  in 
the  hands  of  the  people.  It  is  easily  understood  that  a 
viceroy  could  sign  such  a  treaty  only  under  compulsion, 
in  order  to  gain  time,  and  with  no  intention  of  fulfilling 
its  conditions;  otherwise  he  would  be  a  traitor  to  his 
sovereign,  and  in  any  case  he  must  be  forever  despised  for 
his  inefficiency  and  lack  of  moral  courage. 

Twenty-three  days  later  the  Duke  of  Arcos  and  all 
Spaniards  at  Naples  were  gladdened  by  the  arrival  of  forty- 
eight  ships  under  command  of  the  natural  son  of  Philip 
IV. ;  he  bore  the  name  of  the  conqueror  of  Lepanto,  who 
had  been  the  observed  of  all  observers  at  Naples  more 
than  half  a  century  before,  —  Don  John  of  Austria.  This 
youth  of  eighteen  had  but  four  thousand  men,  and  with 
this  fleet  and  force  he  was  expected  to  drive  the  French 
from  the  coasts  of  Italy.  His  charming  manners,  his 
brilliancy  and  courage  easily  made  him  a  conqueror  of 
hearts;  but,  alas!  that  pleasant  pastime  was  not  his 
present  errand. 

We  have  not  the  space  even  to  outline  the  various 
phases  of  revolution  and  counter-revolution  which  rapidly 


128  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

succeeded  each  other.  The  Spaniards,  the  nobility,  and 
the  people  each  strove  for  authority,  and  each  labored 
under  disadvantages  which  seemed  to  be  insurmountable ; 
and  into  the  midst  of  this  confusion  the  Duke  of  Guise 
came  and  added  his  faction  to  the  others.  A  lucid  account 
of  the  seven  months  which  followed  the  arrival  of  Don 
John  of  Austria  demands  a  patient  unravelling  of  claims 
and  counter-claims,  and.  an  account  of  sieges,  battles, 
victories,  reverses,  treaties,  and  various  other  matters 
which  belong  to  a  different  kind  of  story  from  this ;  the 
details  must  be  omitted  here,  and  the  principal  results 
alone  be  given.- 

The  final  action  occurred  on  April  5,  1648,  when  Don 
John  of  Austria,  whose  forces  had  been  increased,  put  an 
end  to  the  rebellion  in  the  same  market-place  in  which  it 
had  begun.  Don  John  required  his  troops  to  confess  and 
take  the  sacrament.  The  plan  for  the  day's  work  had 
been  so  made  that  the  portions  of  the  city  held  by  the 
rebels  were  surrounded  by  their  opposers  when  the  new 
viceroy,  the  Count  of  Onate,  came  on  with  the  cavalry. 
The  people  made  but  slight  resistance  at  the  garrisons 
which  they  held,  and  De  Reumont  tells  us  that  — 

"  At  the  ninth  hour  of  the  day  the  Spaniards  were  masters  of 
the  whole  city.  A  Te  Deum  was  sung  in  the  cathedral,  the 
houses  were  adorned  with  tapestry,  white  flags  and  handker- 
chiefs waved  from  the  windows.  In  many  places  the  image  of 
the  king  was  set  up  and  hailed  with  great  rejoicings.  Every 
one  appeared  to  rejoice  in  the  restoration  of  peace  ;  the  citizens 
embraced  each  other  in  the  streets.  Nine  months  of  mob 
dominion,  the  insecurity,  the  war,  the  confusion  and  lawless- 
ness, had  made  such  an  impression  that  the  party  of  '  Peace  at 
any  price '  carried  off  the  victory  without  a  struggle." 

The  Count  of  Onate  had  a  task  before  him  which  would 
have  disheartened  many  brave  men,  but  he  was  especially 
fitted  to  cope  with  the  momentous  questions  to  be  solved. 


MASANIELLO'S  REBELLION.  129 

He  was  the  right  man  to  rivet  the  bonds  with  which  the 
Spaniards  again  fettered  the  Neapolitans.  His  phenome- 
nal energy  found  full  employment ;  not  Naples  alone,  but 
the  whole  kingdom  was  completely  unsettled;  bands  of 
banditti  and  such  vagabonds  as  always  hang  about  an 
army  were  now  scattered  throughout  the  country;  the 
entire  population  was  suspicious,  and  apparently  watching 
for  an  excuse  for  another  uprising;  the  need  of  more 
Spanish  troops  was  great;  the  defences  required  strength- 
ening; the  artillery  must  be  placed  in  Castel  Nuovo,  and 
no  one  of  these  things  could  be  accomplished  without  the 
danger  of  exciting  fresh  disturbances. 

The  viceroy  met  all  these  difficulties  with  firmness,  and 
his  wisdom  guided  him  safely  through  numberless  dan- 
gers. He  made  friends  of  the  people,  and  held  such  an 
attitude  towards  the  aristocracy  as  tended  so  to  raise  the 
estate  of  the  vassals  and  lessen  the  arrogance  and  tyranny 
of  the  nobility,  as  to  make  them  all  more  orderly  and 
profitable  subjects  of  his  Majesty  of  Spain  than  they  had 
been  for  a  long  time.  The  nobles  were  soon  afraid  to 
protect  banditti,  and  a  better  condition  existed  at  the 
capital  and  in  its  neighborhood ;  but  there  were  enormous 
difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  the  provinces,  and  the 
account  of  Capecelatro,  who  was  governor  of  Calabria, 
shows  a  state  of  affairs  which  could  only  be  met  by  a  des- 
potism which  could  not  be  vindicated  in  our  time. 

The  Count  of  Onate  brought  greater  tranquillity  and 
prosperity  to  Naples  than  had  existed  there  for  a  long 
period,  which  was  vastly  to  his  credit,  since  he  assumed 
its  government  when  it  was  apparently  lost  to  Spain ;  but 
in  spite  of  this  he  was  suddenly  deposed  in  1653,  greatly 
to  his  own  surprise  and  to  that  of  those  who  realized  the 
value  of  his  services.  His  fall  was  doubtless  due  to  the 
influence  of  the  nobles  who  had  not  been  able  to  mould 
him  to  their  will.  But  their  reign  was  over ;  they  could 

9 


130  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

not  reinstate  themselves  in  their  former  tyranny,  and 
they  profited  little  by  change  of  viceroys. 

When  the  Count  of  Onate  resigned  his  place  to  the 
Count  of  Castrillo,  he  had  driven  the  French  from  Naples 
and  from  their  strongholds  at  Piombino  and  Elba;  the 
administration  of  justice  was  well  established;  the  rob- 
bers and  banditti  were  banished,  and  taxes  were  less 
oppressive  and  more  equally  distributed  than  since  the 
days  of  Don  Pedro  de  Toledo. 

The  Count  of  Castrillo  was  scarcely  at  home  in  his 
new  office  when  the  French  under  the  Duke  of  Guise 
again  appeared  on  the  coasts ;  but  so  little  success  attended 
their  projects  that  they  soon  sailed  away,  not  to  trouble 
Naples  again  for  more  than  a  century.  Three  years 
later  a  pestilence  ravaged  the  whole  kingdom,  and  was 
probably  fatal  to  a  greater  number  than  any  plague  of 
modern  times.  Gradually,  too,  the  effects  of  the  rule  of 
Onate  were  lost;  exorbitant  rates  were  decreed,  and  a 
tax  again  put  on  food ;  all  the  old  suffering  was  renewed, 
and  nothing  better  could  be  hoped  for  without  a  radical 
change  in  the  government,  which  was  not  to  come  until 
half  a  century  more  of  abject  misery  had  ground  the 
Neapolitans  into  the  depths  of  moral  and  physical 
inferiority. 

Naturally  the  manners  and  customs  of  those  who  could 
be  said  to  possess  such  qualities  had  become  essentially 
Spanish;  this  was  largely  true  all  over  Italy,  but  espe- 
cially so  in  Naples.  The  Spanish  court  dress  was  adopted 
by  cavaliers ;  ladies  wore  stiff  stays  and  absurd  frills,  and 
dressed  the  hair  in  Spanish  fashion ;  even  Spanish  words 
and  idioms  were  used  to  express  the  affected  courtesies 
of  ceremonious  occasions  which  could  not  be  sincere 
between  a  ruling  and  a  dependent  people. 

If  Neapolitan  literature  could  be  said  to  exist  in  this 
century,  it  too  was  largely  moulded  in  Spanish  form,  as 


MASANIELLO'S  KEBELLION.  131 

was  true  in  France,  where  Corneille  followed  Spanish 
models.  In  rare  instances  an  author  escaped  this  slavery ; 
Giovan  Battista  Marini  was  one  of  these,  and  faulty  as 
his  style  was,  it  had  the  merit  of  not  being  Spanish.  But 
when  Onate  built  a  hall  in  the  royal  palace  where  balls 
and  theatrical  entertainments  were  given,  these  festivities 
were  essentially  like  those  at  Madrid,  although  it  is 
recorded  that  on  one  occasion  Onate  witnessed  an  Italian 
comedy. 

Apparently  the  most  distinguished  Neapolitans  had  no 
hesitation  in  paying  court  to  the  Spaniards  in  a  somewhat 
servile  fashion.  The  Duke  of  Maddaloni  gave  a  splendid 
entertainment  to  the  Duke  and  Duchess  of  Castrillo. 
First  a  comedy  was  acted,  and  then  supper  followed,  at 
which  the  viceroy  and  his  family  had  a  separate  table, 
and  were  served  by  the  Duke  and  Duchess  of  Maddaloni 
themselves.  The  magnificence  of  the  table  appointments 
was  unusual,  even  for  kings,  and  at  the  end  of  the  feast 
each  guest  received  a  royal  gift. 

When  we  remember  the  character  of  the  artists  of  the 
first  half  of  this  century,  and  their  wild  and  desperate 
deeds,  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  that  the  rebellion  of 
Masaniello  proved  so  attractive  to  men  of  their  profession 
that  many  were  found  in  the  hottest  of  the  fray.  The 
story  of  the  Compagnia  della  Morte  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  of  the  many  exciting  tales  connected  with 
this  rebellion. 

Aniello  Falcone  was  the  leader  of  this  society ;  he  was 
a  pupil  of  Ribera,  and  a  painter  of  battle-scenes,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  Museum  at  Naples.  Salvator  Rosa  was  his 
pupil,  and,  in  fact,  he  may  be  called  the  head  of  a  school 
of  artists  who  were  only  too  ready  to  join  him  in  seeking 
vengeance  on  the  Spaniards.  Aniello  loved  fighting,  and 
had  been  engaged  in  many  frays.  On  one  occasion  when 
a  relative  of  his  was  killed  in  a  quarrel  with  two  Spanish 


132  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

soldiers,  he  rushed  into  his  atelier  and  called  out  his 
pupils,  who  with  him  made  an  attack  on  the  murderers. 
Other  soldiers  hastened  to  the  relief  of  the  first  two,  and 
although  the  painters  fought  bravely  they  were  finally 
forced  to  fly,  leaving  one  of  their  number  dead.  This 
disturbance  occurred  a  few  days  before  the  beginning  of 
the  rebellion.  The  Compagnia  della  Morte  had  elected 
Falcone  their  leader,  and  sworn  to  pursue  Spaniards  to  the 
death.  The  insurrection  afforded  them  an  unhoped  for 
opportunity  to  fulfil  their  vow.  Forsaking  their  art,  pro- 
curing arms,  and  urging  friends  to  enlist  with  them,  they 
began  their  desperate  work. 

Salvator  Rosa  was  of  their  number.  He  had  already 
seen  much  of  the  exciting  life  of  the  period  in  Rome  and 
Florence,  and  was  now  thirty-two  years  old.  Micco 
Spadaro,  —  Domenico  Gargiulo,  —  whose  picture  of  the 
"  Revolt  of  Masaniello  "  is  in  the  Museum  at  Naples,  was 
of  this  band,  as  well  as  Carlo  Coppola,  known  from  his 
pictures  of  the  plague  in  1656.  Both  the  Fracanzanos, 
former  pupils  of  Spagnoletto,  joined  the  society,  and 
Viviano  Codagora,  whose  quiet  pictures  of  city  streets 
with  their  remarkable  perspective  are  scarcely  indicative 
of  his  qualities  as  a  bravo.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable 
case  was  that  of  Andrea  Vaccaro,  who,  at  the  age  of  fifty, 
left  his  wife  and  took  with  him  his  son  of  fourteen  to 
join  this  band  of  the  most  merciless  bravadoes  that  can 
be  imagined. 

These  painters  roamed  the  streets  armed  with  swords 
and  daggers,  pursuing  and  killing  each  Spaniard  who  was 
alone,  —  not  a  very  brave  mode  of  warfare.  As  they  were 
poor  and  must  earn  bread  enough  to  avoid  starvation,  they 
painted  by  night.  By  this  means  Coppola  became  blind. 
I  have  always  wondered  who  bought  their  pictures.  Such 
a  condition  as  prevailed  at  Naples  would  not  be  favorable 
to  the  gentler  arts.  But  as  this  is  always  set  down  in  the 


MASANIELLO'S  REBELLION.  133 

accounts  of  this  Compagnia,  perhaps  it  is  best  not  to 
reason  too  much  about  it,  lest  we  lose  this  very  pictur- 
esque feature  of  their  lives.  Men  who  did  not  hesitate  to 
murder,  but  would  yet  religiously  earn  their  daily  bread, 
offer  so  curious  and  interesting  a  phenomenon  of  human 
nature  that  they  should  be  preserved  in  the  annals  of  their 
time.  A  few  wearied  of  this  peculiar  life  and  left  the 
band ;  but  most  of  them  were  more  and  more  enamored  of 
their  strange  profession,  especially  when  they  knew  Masa- 
niello,  and  he  smiled  on  them. 

Several  of  these  masters  made  portraits  of  the  Captain- 
General  of  the  people.  Salvator  Rosa  repeated  his  por- 
trait many  times,  and  both  he  and  Aniello  Falcone  escaped 
to  Rome  when  Masaniello  fell.  The  latter  went  to 
France,  where  his  battle-scenes  won  for  him  the  favor  of 
Louis  XIV. ;  and  after  Castrillo  became  viceroy,  at  the 
intercession  of  the  powerful  Colbert,  Falcone  was  per- 
mitted to  return  to  Naples. 

During  the  remainder  of  the  century  there  was  little 
occupation  for  artists.  Occasionally  a  chapel  was  deco- 
rated, and  the  new  apartments  added  to  the  royal  palace 
afforded  an  opportunity  to  a  few  painters.  The  Duke  of 
Onate  intended  to  have  the  portraits  of  all  the  viceroys 
since  the  time  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  painted  in  the 
great  saloon  by  Massimo  Stanzioni,  an  idea  which  was 
carried  out  under  his  successors.  But  art,  literature, 
science,  and  all  the  gentler  pursuits  of  life  had  received 
such  blows  as  could  not  be  healed  while  every  other 
human  interest  was  prostrated,  while  the  heel  of  the 
oppressor  was  inexorably  treading  out  the  very  life-blood 
of  the  people.  Shakspeare  makes  the  Duke  say  in  the 
forest  of  Arden :  — 

"  Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity, 
Which,  like  the  toad,  ugly  and  venomous, 
Wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  his  head." 


134  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

But  here  adversity  had  long  since  passed  the  point 
where  any  sweetness  could  result,  and  the  venomous 
tyrants  of  Spain  displayed  no  single  beneficent  character- 
istic in  their  government  of  Naples.  A  radical  change 
alone  could  bring  relief,  and  only  the  hope  which  would 
come  with  a  government  by  their  own  sovereigns  could 
arouse  the  Neapolitans  to  struggle  for  new  attainments 
of  any  sort. 

The  public  works  in  Naples  in  the  last  half  of  this  cen- 
tury are  almost  too  few  and  unimportant  to  be  mentioned. 
The  Count  of  Onate  erected  the  first  theatre  in  Naples, 
the  Teatro  di  S.  Bartolommeo,  which  was  destroyed  when 
that  of  S.  Carlo  was  built.  This  viceroy  also  erected  the 
Fontana  della  Selleria,  which  long  since  disappeared, 
and  in  1651  the  grand  staircase  of  the  royal  palace  was 
constructed  by  his  command.  In  1668  a  dock  adjoining 
the  arsenal  was  built  under  Don  Pedro  Antonio  of  Aragon. 
Perhaps  Don  Federigo  de  Toledo,  Marquis  of  Villafranca, 
did  greater  injury  to  Naples  than  the  others  had  done 
good,  when,  in  1671,  after  being  viceroy  but  two  months, 
he  carried  to  Spain  the  bones  of  Alfonso  I.,  which  he 
disinterred  in  the  church  of  S.  Dominico  Maggiore, 
together  with  the  statues  of  the  four  rivers  which  he  took 
from  the  fountain  of  the  Molo,  the  statue  of  Venus  from 
the  fountain  of  Castel  Nuovo,  and  the  celebrated  statues 
and  steps  of  the  fountain  Medina,  the  work  of  Giovanni 
da  Nola. 

The  sun  of  the  seventeenth  century  set  in  darkness  and 
gloom  in  Naples,  and  the  dawn  was  still  more  than  thirty 
years  distant.  Historians  who  delve  more  deeply  than 
we  propose  to  do  for  the  causes  of  effects  now  in  opera- 
tion, attribute  all  the  evils  that  have  since  existed  in 
Naples  to  the  influence  of  the  Spanish  dominion,  which 
cultivated  no  good,  and  developed  all  the  evil  tendencies 
in  the  Neapolitan  character.  Much  time  is  required  for 


MASANIELLO'S  REBELLION.  135 

recovery  from  such  conditions  as  we  have  pictured ;  and 
certainly  the  people  of  this  kingdom,  as  we  see  them 
to-day,  have  made  immense  strides  above  the  depths  into 
which  two  centuries  of  perpetual  oppression  had  driven 
them  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Naples,  thou  heart  of  men,  which  ever  pantest 

Naked,  beneath  the  lidless  eye  of  heaven ! 
Elysian  City,  which  to  calm  enchantest 

The  mutinous  air  and  sea !  they  round  thee,  even 

As  sleep  round  Love,  are  driven,  — 
Metropolis  of  a  ruined  Paradise 

Long  lost,  late  won,  and  yet  but  half  regained ! 
Bright  altar  of  the  bloodless  sacrifice, 

Which  armed  Victory  offers  up  unstained 

To  Love,  the  flower-enchained  1 
Thou  which  wert  once,  then  didst  cease  to  be, 
Now  art,  and  henceforth  ever  shalt  be,  free, 

If  hope,  and  truth,  and  justice  can  avail. 
Hail,  hail,  all  hail ' 

Percy  Bysshe  Shelley. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CARLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV. 

1700-1806. 

A  FTER  the  death  of  Charles  II.,  in  1700,  the  war  of  the 
-tjL  Spanish  Succession  endured  thirteen  years,  during 
which  Naples  was  still  governed  by  viceroys;  and  after 
the  crown  passed  to  the  Archduke  Charles,  —  afterwards 
the  Emperor  Charles  VI., — during  twenty-one  years, 
eight  German  viceroys  succeeded  one  another  in  authority 
over  the  Neapolitans.  The  change  in  the  nationality  of 
its  rulers  brought  no  benefits  to  the  kingdom.  The  one 
aim  of  its  conquerors  seems  to  have  been  to  discover  the 
largest  sum  that  could  possibly  be  wrung  from  their  sub- 
jects, who,  on  their  part,  were  striving  to  find  what  was 
the  smallest  amount  that  they  could  pay  and  still  retain 
life  and  personal  liberty. 

During  two  hundred  and  thirty  years  under  Spanish  and 
German  rule,  the  history  of  Naples  furnishes  an  example 
of  everything  that  a  country  and  a  government  should  not 
be.  The  aristocracy  had  no  moral  character,  and  no 
other  class  had  risen  to  take  its  place ;  the  great  fortunes 
had  disappeared ;  idleness  seemed  to  be  actually  consid- 
ered an  occupation ;  and  during  all  the  years  that  Naples 
had  given  men  and  money  to  her  foreign  rulers  she  had  in 
return  been  subjected  to  every  possible  loss,  humiliation, 
and  misery 

The  departments  of  justice  were  in  dire  confusion. 
One  power  after  another  had  made  new  laws  without 


CARLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.      137 

repealing  the  old,  or  properly  instituting  the  new  codes. 
Different  parts  of  the  kingdom  were  under  different  laws, 
and  it  is  said  that  in  1734  eleven  methods  of  legislation 
actually  existed  in  this  peninsula,  while  the  courts  were 
filled  with  corrupt  officials  and  lawyers.  The  army,  too, 
was  completely  demoralized;  indeed,  the  profession  of  a 
soldier,  so  honorable  elsewhere,  was  regarded  with  scorn 
in  Naples  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Even  the  Church,  to  which  an  oppressed  people  ought 
to  be  able  to  look  for  blessing,  had  been  far  from  that  to 
Naples,  as  to  all  Italy,  by  reason  of  its  schisms  and  the 
intrigues  of  the  Popes  with  those  who  had  reigned  here. 
The  claim  of  the  Apostolic  See  to  supremacy  over  all 
other  powers  was  supported  by  the  immense  army  of  eccle- 
siastics and  their  enormous  wealth.  It  is  estimated  that 
in  the  Neapolitan  kingdom  the  number  of  those  whose 
profession  was  that  of  religion  —  from  archbishops  to 
monks  and  nuns  —  was  112,000,  and  in  Naples  alone 
16,500.  After  the  royal  possessions  were  deducted  from 
the  entire  property  of  the  kingdom,  more  than  one  half 
the  remainder  belonged  to  the  Church.  Some  writers 
claim  that  the  Church  property  was  even  larger  than  this ; 
but  their  estimate  may  be  exaggerated.  In  any  case,  little 
enough  was  left  for  the  people,  and  they  were  at  that 
stage  of  poverty  and  misery  when  any  change  would  be 
welcomed ;  and  the  change  was  not  long  deferred. 

The  first  of  the  Spanish  Bourbon  kings  at  Naples,  best 
known  as  Carlo  Borbone,  but  also  called  Charles  VII.  and 
Charles  III.,  obtained  his  throne  by  violence;  but  he  sin- 
cerely desired  the  happiness  and  prosperity  of  his  people. 
He  was  the  younger  son  of  Philip  Y.  of  Spain  by  his 
second  wife,  Elisabetta  Farnese.  She  was  a  bold,  ambi- 
tious woman,  whose  chief  aim  was  to  acquire  for  her  sons 
such  power  as  should  partly  atone  for  the  fact  that  their 
elder  half-brother  inherited  the  throne  of  Spain. 


138  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

• 

Charles  was  but  seventeen  years  old  when  he  left  the 
court  of  his  father,  at  which  time  Philip  V.  and  the  queen, 
on  their  thrones,  received  him  in  presence  of  the  court. 
According  to  custom,  Charles  knelt  before  his  father,  who 
made  the  sign  of  a  large  cross  over  the  boy's  head,  and 
raising  him  to  his  feet,  girded  on  him  a  rich  jewelled 
sword,  saying,  "This  is  the  sword  which  Louis  XIV.,  my 
grandfather,  placed  at  my  side  when  he  sent  me  to  conquer 
these  realms  of  Spain;  may  it  bring  thee  entire  success 
without  the  calamity  of  a  long  war."  Philip  then  kissed 
his  son  and  dismissed  him. 

Charles  next  appears  in  Perugia,  where  he  reviewed 
16,000  infantry  and  5,000  cavalry,  preparatory  to  the 
conquest  of  Naples.  This  force  was  commanded  by  Mon- 
temar;  and  among  its  officers  were  distinguished  French, 
Spanish,  and  Neapolitan  nobles,  and  even  the  English 
Duke  of  Berwick.  During  the  review  Charles  was  sur- 
rounded by  many  distinguished  men  in  magnificent  cos- 
tumes, while  splendid  banners  floated  above  them.  Their 
flatteries  of  the  young  prince  were  quite  enough  to  turn 
his  head,  and  there  must  have  been  a  basis  of  true  solidity 
in  his  character  which  enabled  him  to  choose  the  plainest 
man  among  them  all  as  his  chief  councillor  and  his 
auditor  of  the  Spanish  army. 

Bernardo  Tanucci  had  attracted  Charles  by  his  knowl- 
edge of  law  and  his  ability  to  plead  his  cause  in  court ; 
and  the  statesmanlike  qualities  which  he  later  developed 
justified  Charles  in  his  choice  of  his  minister. 

We  will  not  recite  the  incidents  of  his  march  to  Naples. 
He  entered  the  city  by  the  Capuan  Gate,  May  10,  1834. 
He  visited  the  churches,  made  a  splendid  gift  to  the 
statue  of  S.  Januarius,  and  freed  the  prisoners  in  S. 
Giacomo  and  the  Vicaria  on  his  way  to  the  palace.  The 
city  was  alive  with  rejoicings,  and  was  brilliantly  illu- 
minated that  night.  While  Count  Montemar  carefully 


CARLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.      139 

disposed  his  army  to  guard  the  young  king,  Charles  pub- 
lished a  decree  favorable  to  his  subjects,  and  made  Tanucci 
his  minister  of  justice. 

Montemar  next  dispersed  the  German  troops  which 
remained  in  the  kingdom,  and  at  the  end  of  a  few  weeks 
the  whole  peninsula  had  submitted  to  Carlo  Borbone. 
A  year  later  Charles  triumphantly  entered  Palermo,  and 
having  convened  the  Parliament  and  taken  the  proper 
oath,  he  was  crowned  with  unusual  magnificence,  the 
crown  alone  costing  1,440,000  ducats.  After  many  festiv- 
ities he  again  reached  Naples  in  June,  1735.  His  reign 
and  the  care  of  his  people  may  be  essentially  dated  from 
this  time.  We  shall  give  its  results  rather  than  its 
details ;  and,  boy  as  he  was,  Tanucci  for  some  years  ruled 
him,  as  well  as  his  kingdom,  with  an  admirable  tact  that 
induced  Charles  to  approve  of  all  that  was  done. 

In  1738  Charles  married  a  princess  of  Poland,  Amalia 
Walburga,  not  yet  fifteen  years  old.  Her  reception  as 
she  passed  through  Germany  and  Italy  was  suited  to  the 
betrothed  of  a  sovereign;  and  Charles  awaited  her  at 
Portella,  and  received  her  with  a  splendor  which  dazzled 
her  childish  eyes.  The  royal  pair  made  their  entrance 
into  Naples  on  July  2;  and  on  that  day  the  king 
founded  the  Order  of  S.  Januarius,  of  which  he  was  the 
grand-master,  the  knights  numbering  but  sixty,  and  all 
being  of  noble  descent.  The  insignia  of  the  order  is  a 
cross,  each  point  terminating  in  lilies,  with  an  image  of 
the  saint  in  the  centre,  and  the  motto  In  sanguine  fcedus. 
The  statutes  of  the  order  are  strict  enough  for  a  body  of 
monks  rather  than  a  company  of  courtly  knights ;  but  it 
was  in  perfect  accord  with  the  religion  of  this  king,  who, 
clothed  in  sackcloth,  washed  the  feet  of  the  poor,  and 
every  year,  with  his  own  hands,  modelled  a  representa- 
tion of  the  Nativity  of  Christ. 

To   a  monarch  thus  devoted  in  his  religious  life,  we 


140  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

must  accord  an  unusual  sense  of  justice  for  the  age  in 
which  he  lived,  when  we  remember  that  he  abolished  the 
tribute  paid  by  Naples  to  the  Pope,  limited  the  number 
of  priests  to  be  ordained,  and  would  not  permit  a  papal 
bull  to  be  enforced  without  his  signature  of  approval ;  and 
all  this  while  he  bound  himself  to  hear  Mass  ever}7  day, 
to  communicate  with  unusual  frequency,  and  to  preserve 
his  faith  in  the  Catholic  Christian  Church  inviolate. 

Charles  reigned  at  Naples  but  twenty-five  years,  during 
eight  of  which  he  was  involved  in  a  war  with  Germany; 
yet  he  found  the  time  and  means  to  accomplish  some 
changes  greatly  to  the  good  of  his  subjects.  Besides 
those  already  mentioned,  he  placed  strict  limits  on  the 
right  of  asylum  for  criminals;  he  restricted  the  feudal 
privileges,  and  established  the  right  of  appeal  in  the 
baronial  courts ;  he  protected  the  commons  in  their  claims 
on  certain  estates,  and  enacted  many  other  measures 
which  lessened  the  power  of  the  nobles,  and  opened  the 
way  to  influence  and  position  to  educated  men  of  the 
middle  classes.  These  reforms  brought  vast  energy  and 
intelligence  to  the  service  of  the  king,  although  the  entire 
result  was  not  so  noble  as  the  thought  which  originated 
them.  Neither  were  the  changes  in  the  administration 
of  justice  searching  enough  to  abolish  thieves,  homicides, 
banditti,  and  robbers  from  the  provinces ;  and  so  frequent 
was  the  crime  of  poisoning  in  Naples  that  a  special  court, 
the  Junta  of  Poisons,  was  established  to  inquire  into 
these  cases  alone. 

Charles  made  commercial  treaties  with  various  coun- 
tries, sent  consuls  to  important  ports,  and  instituted  a 
tribunal  for  the  decision  of  commercial  suits  and  ques- 
tions from  which  there  was  no  appeal.  Under  this  policy 
Neapolitan  commerce  quickly  sprang  into  importance, 
and  would  have  brought  great  prosperity  to  the  kingdom 
had  not  exorbitant  duties  been  put  on  foreign  goods,  which 


CARLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.  141 

drove  the  merchants  to  more  favorable  ports,  and  proved 
fatal  to  the  commercial  interests  of  Naples. 

The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  apparently  secured  the 
throne  of  Naples  to  Charles  and  his  heirs ;  and  the  anxie- 
ties of  war  being  ended,  the  king  began  to  indulge  his 
natural  taste  for  the  improvement  of  his  capital.  Among 
his  most  important  achievements  in  this  wise  were  the 
enlargement  and  completion  of  the  great  harbor  of  the 
Molo  Grande  and  the  bridge  of  the  Immacolata  at  the  Molo 
Piccolo,  the  Strada  Mergellina  and  that  of  the  Marinella, 
with  the  building  called  the  Immacolatella,  now  the  office 
of  the  Board  of  Health  and  of  the  Customs.  All  the  shore 
along  the  Marinella  and  the  Mergellina  was  transformed 
from  a  miserable  quarter,  where  the  dirtiest  population 
was  gathered,  into  a  beautiful  road  where  the  people  could 
ride  or  walk  with  pleasure. 

The  king  and  queen  when  returning  from  Castellammare 
were  enchanted  by  the  country  about  Portici,  and  decided 
to  build  a  villa  there  in  spite  of  the  suggestion  that  it 
was  too  near  Vesuvius.  Charles  replied,  "  God,  the 
Immaculate  Virgin,  and  S.  Januarius  will  protect  us." 
He  also  began  the  palace  of  Capo-di-Monte,  which  was 
completed  a  century  later. 

The  splendid  theatre  of  S.  Carlo  was  a  work  of  this 
king,  and  bears  his  name.  It  was  erected  by  the  architect 
Angelo  Carasale,  from  the  plans  of  Medrano,  who  also 
designed  the  Capo-di-Monte.  Charles  commanded  that 
this  should  be  the  largest  theatre  in  Europe,  and  built  in 
the  shortest  time;  it  was  begun  in  March,  and  finished  in 
October,  1737,  and  in  November,  eight  months  from  its 
commencement,  a  play  was  given  on  the  name-day  of  the 
king.  To  make  room  for  S.  Carlo  many  houses  were  taken 
away,  and  the  ground  belonging  to  it  extended  at  the 
back,  so  that  when  the  end  of  the  stage  was  thrown  open, 
battles  and  other  scenes,  with  chariots  and  horses,  could 


142  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

be  seen  in  the  distance.  The  interior  of  the  auditorium 
was  lined  with  mirrors  which  reflected  the  light  from  the 
candles,  and  produced  a  marvellous  effect.  The  royal  box 
was  richly  fitted  up;  and  when  Charles  saw  the  whole 
completed  and  lighted,  he  sent  for  Carasale,  and  publicly 
commended  him,  to  the  delight  of  the  whole  city.  Cara- 
sale thanked  the  king,  who  casually  remarked  that  since 
the  theatre  was  so  near  the  palace,  it  would  have  been 
better  for  the  royal  family  had  there  been  a  connecting 
passage.  Then  saying,  "But  we  will  think  about  it," 
Carasale  was  dismissed. 

When  the  play  was  over,  Carasale  awaited  the  king,  and 
asked  him  to  enter  the  palace  by  the  passage  he  had  com- 
manded. In  three  hours  the  architect  had  contrived  to 
have  a  great  wall  pulled  down,  and  to  construct  a  rough 
passage,  which  by  means  of  carpets,  tapestries,  and  dra- 
peries was  truly  artistic  and  beautiful  in  effect,  and 
appeared  to  the  delighted  monarch  like  a  work  of 
enchantment. 

But  alas!  when  this  wonderful  Carasale  rendered  his 
accounts  to  the  auditors,  they  were  dissatisfied,  and 
although  he  appealed  to  the  king  personally,  he  was 
finally  imprisoned  at  S.  Elmo,  where,  after  a  long  cap- 
tivity, he  died.  His  family  disappeared,  and  except  for 
the  wonderful  qualities  of  his  work,  the  very  name  of 
Carasale  would  now  be  unknown. 

Charles  improved  the  Museo  Borbonico,  and  erected 
the  House  of  Refuge,  —  Albergo  dei  Poveri,  —  which  is 
still  but  half  completed,  although  in  it  and  its  dependen- 
cies two  thousand  people  are  cared  for.  He  built  a  bridge 
over  the  Sebeto,  which  makes  the  eastern  boundary  of 
Naples,  and  another  over  the  Yolturno  at  Venafro.  He 
also  constructed  roads,  called  Strade  di  Caccia,  which 
enabled  him  to  indulge  his  passion  for  the  chase;  while 
the  roads  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom  were  dangerous 


7be  Theatre  of  San  Carlo. 


CARLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.       143 

even  for  those  on  horseback.  In  truth,  his  improvements 
were  confined  to  the  environs  of  Naples,  but  afforded 
many  benefits  to  the  people  and  villages  near  at  hand. 

The  most  magnificent  work,  however,  under  the  reign 
of  this  monarch  was  the  palace  of  Caserta,  fourteen  miles 
from  Naples,  which  has  been  called  by  Valery  and  other 
authorities  the  noblest  conception  of  a  palace  in  all 
Europe.  Luigi  Vanvitelli  was  its  architect,  and  it  was 
begun  in  1752.  The  whole  plan  was  that  of  Carlo  Bor- 
bone,  and  was  carried  to  completion  under  his  successor. 
Dignified  and  splendid  as  it  is,  there  is  an  atmosphere  of 
gloom  about  it ;  it  has  never  been  continuously  inhabited 
for  any  long  period,  and  is  now  a  mere  show  place  for 
the  curious.  There  is  a  singular  monotony  in  its  design 
externally,  which  indicates  that  Vanvitelli  was  an  artist 
of  small  resources.  The  fa§ade  was  adorned  with  splendid 
columns,  arches,  statues,  and  carvings,  above  all  of 
which  was  an  equestrian  statue  in  bronze.  Its  colonnade 
traversing  the  courts,  the  staircase,  chapel,  and  theatre 
were  all  lavishly  decorated  with  the  most  beautiful  mar- 
bles. It  is  built  of  travertine  from  Capua;  the  stairs  are 
of  single  blocks  of  Sicilian  lumachella  adorned  with  well- 
sculptured  lions  and  statues ;  the  breccias  of  Dragoni  and 
the  marbles  of  Vitulano  are  freely  used  in  the  wall  facings, 
and  there  are  many  pillars  of  both  red  and  yellow  breccia 
from  Apulia.  In  the  theatre  are  sixteen  columns  of  Afri- 
can marble  taken  from  the  Serapeon  at  Pozzuoli,  and  the 
chapel  is  lavishly  decorated  in  marbles  and  gilding,  and 
an  imitation  of  lapis-lazuli.  There  are  inlaid  woods, 
crystals,  and  even  jewels  in  various  parts  of  this  bewilder- 
ing labyrinth,  as  well  as  pictures,  frescos,  and  statues. 
On  three  sides  is  a  garden  decorated  with  statues,  obe- 
lisks, and  wonderful  cascades  and  fountains,  to  supply 
which  an  aqueduct  was  constructed  twenty-five  miles  in 
length,  which  was  a  work  worthy  of  the  Romans.  It 


144  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

crosses  the  Tipatiue  Mountains  and  three  wide  valleys; 
it  is  carried  over  lofty,  massive  bridges,  one  over  the 
valley  of  Maddaloni  being  1,618  feet  long  and  178  feet 
high ;  it  is  constructed  in  three  tiers  of  arches,  its  sup- 
porting piers  being  thirty-two  feet  through.  The  water, 
after  serving  its  purposes  in  the  gardens  at  Caserta,  flows 
underground  to  Naples,  and  helps  to  make  a  sufficient 
supply  for  that  great  city. 

Charles  renewed  the  pavement  in  the  Grotta  di  Posilipo, 
and  built  arches  of  stone  to  strengthen  its  roof.  At  Trani 
he  built  fine  stone  quays  around  the  circular  harbor,  and 
executed  many  lesser  but  still  important  works. 

In  the  Piazza  del  Plebiscite  is  an  equestrian  statue  of 
Charles  III.  by  Canova;  and  when,  in  1885-1888,  statues 
were  made  for  the  niches  in  the  fagade  of  the  royal  palace, 
this  sovereign  was  not  forgotten,  and  his  statue  is  a  testi- 
monial to  the  fact  that  until  a  very  recent  period  Naples 
owed  to  him  all  that  was  fine  in  the  modern  city. 

But  the  works  of  Carlo  Borbone  in  which  the  whole 
world  is  interested,  are  the  excavations  at  Herculaneum, 
Pompeii,  Pozzuoli,  and  Cuma3,  which  will  be  spoken  of 
later,  when  a  more  detailed  account  is  given  of  these 
marvellous  cities. 

At  Portici,  in  his  palace,  Charles  opened  a  museum  for 
the  antiquities  of  Herculaneum,  and  an  academy  was 
founded  for  the  study  of  the  history  of  these  remarkable 
objects.  New  courses  of  lectures  were  instituted  at  the 
university,  and  the  grade  of  the  colleges  was  raised ;  but 
the  minor  schools  were  not  equally  improved,  owing  to  the 
opposition  of  the  bishops  to  all  reforms.  The  result  was 
that  while  unusual  men  arose  here  and  there  from  the 
ignorance  around  them,  and  became  eminent,  there  was 
nothing  which  merited  the  name  of  general  education. 

Much  as  may  be  said  in  honor  of  Carlo  Borbone,  there 
is  another  side  to  his  character  which  cannot  be  ignored. 


CARLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.      145 

His  less  praiseworthy  acts  were  the  introduction  of  the 
lottery  and  of  gambling  into  his  kingdom.  He  later 
abolished  the  latter,  or  endeavored  to  do  so,  although  it 
brought  40,000  ducats  a  year  to  his  treasury.  He  proscribed 
the  society  of  the  Freemasons,  but  did  not  severely  punish 
its  members.  His  conduct  towards  the  Jews  is  a  dark 
stain  on  his  memory ;  for,  having  invited  them  to  Naples 
with  promises  of  good  treatment,  he  cruelly  banished 
them  seven  years  later  to  satisfy  the  prejudices  of  the 
Neapolitans.  Although  thus  controlled  by  religious 
superstition,  he  boldly  opposed  the  establishment  of  the 
Inquisition.  When  Benedict  XIV.  undertook  to  plant  the 
Holy  Office  in  Naples,  Charles  disregarded  the  initial 
steps;  but  when  the  archbishop,  encouraged  by  the  king's 
apparent  indifference,  placed  the  inscription  Santo  Uffizio 
above  his  door,  Charles  issued  an  edict  for  its  removal, 
and  forbade  every  form  of  secret  meeting  or  secret  discus- 
sion of  any  subject. 

Towards  the  end  of  his  reign  in  Naples  Charles  enjoyed 
a  secure  and  peaceful  life ;  his  people  had  accepted  him, 
and  were  engaged  in  no  political  rebellions;  there  was 
sufficient  comfort  at  court,  and  a  large  family  was  grow- 
ing up  in  the  palace.  The  clergy,  while  somewhat 
opposed  to  his  policy,  thought  it  best  to  make  no  demon- 
strations against  it;  and  although  the  privileges  of  the 
barons  had  been  lessened,  the  gayety  and  fascination  of 
court  life,  presided  over  by  a  happy  king  and  queen, 
quite  contented  these  nobles,  who  had  no  ambitions  beyond 
present  enjoyment. 

Into  the  midst  of  these  agreeable  surroundings  came 
the  news  of  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VI.,  by  which  Carlo 
Borbone  inherited  the  throne  of  Spain,  and  had  already 
been  proclaimed  by  the  Spanish  ministers.  The  first  act 
of  the  new  monarch  was  the  appointment  of  his  mother  as 
regent  until  he  could  himself  assume  the  government. 

10 


146  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

As  Spain  and  Naples,  under  existing  treaties,  could  not  be 
ruled  jointly,  his  first  care  was  to  provide  a  sovereign  for 
Naples.  His  six  sons  and  two  daughters  were  still  very 
young ;  and  the  eldest,  a  boy  of  twelve,  was  of  weak  mind 
and  infirm  body. 

Charles  struggled  with  contending  feelings.  He  could 
not  pass  over  his  eldest  son  and  give  his  throne  to  another 
without  stating  his  reasons  to  the  world,  and  in  any  case 
there  must  be  a  regent.  -  The  poor  boy  might  not  live 
long,  and  if  declared  king,  the  next  heir  might  soon  come 
to  the  throne  by  natural  causes.  But  the  king's  regard 
for  his  people  compelled  him  to  be  honest,  and  a  document 
in  which  the  best  medical  authorities  described  the  imbe- 
cility of  the  young  prince  was  read  before  the  court  and 
the  ambassadors,  while  Charles  was  moved  to  tears. 
His  second  son,  Charles  Antony,  was  heir  to  Spain ;  and 
the  third,  Ferdinand,  but  seven  years  old,  was  the  king  of 
Naples  and  Sicily. 

A  solemn  scene  followed,  in  which  Charles  made  the 
sign  of  the  cross  over  his  son  as  Philip  V.  had  made  it 
over  him,  and  gave  the  boy  the  same  sword  that  he  had 
received,  addressing  his  child  as  "your  Majesty,"  and 
saying,  "  Keep  it  for  the  defence  of  thy  religion  and  thy 
subjects."  He  then  released  Ferdinand  from  all  obliga- 
tions to  himself,  and  gave  him  a  council  of  regency  until 
he  should  reach  sixteen  years.  The  foreigners  present 
acknowledged  the  king,  and  his  subjects  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance.  Charles,  repeating  his  prayers  for  the  pros- 
perity of  his  son  and  his  kingdom,  left  the  assembly  amid 
the  praises  and  blessings  of  all. 

He  at  once  prepared  for  his  voyage,  carefully  leaving 
behind  every  jewel  and  valuable  belonging  to  the  crown  of 
Naples,  even  to  a  ring  which  he  had  worn  ever  after  it 
was  found  at  Pompeii ;  it  had  no  special  value  except  as 
it  proved  the  conscientious  honesty  of  the  king,  for  which 


CARLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.      147 

reason  it  is  still  seen  in  the  museum  at  Naples.  After 
making  presents  and  conferring  honors  on  those  who  had 
faithfully  served  him,  confiding  the  invalid  Philip  to  the 
care  of  the  preceptor  of  the  young  king,  he  sailed  for 
Spain  with  his  wife  and  daughters  and  four  sons. 

The  entire  people  witnessed  his  departure,  which  occurred 
October  6,  1759.  Those  who  could  get  no  nearer  point 
of  vantage  crowded  the  flat  roofs  of  the  houses.  The 
remarkable  silence  of  the  thousands  of  spectators,  and  the 
sincere  grief  at  his  loss,  seem  like  a  prophecy  of  all  they 
were  to  endure  in  the  century  which  followed. 

The  regents  appointed  by  Carlo  Borbone  to  conduct 
affairs  for  Ferdinand  IV.  were  old  men,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Tanucci,  who  now  began  to  show  the  wrong  side 
of  his  character.  If  the  young  king  should  prove  to  be  a 
man  of  talent,  who  would  not  brook  control,  Tanucci  could 
retain  absolute  power  but  eight  years.  He  therefore  set 
himself  the  task  of  making  Ferdinand  of  no  account.  He 
directed  the  tutor  of  the  king  to  teach  him  as  little  as 
possible ;  and  the  boy,  having  robust  health  and  the  gay 
spirits  which  it  brings,  was  but  too  glad  to  spend  his  days 
in  athletic  sports  and  the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  as  he  was 
encouraged  to  do;  and  whenever  he  exhibited  a  low  or 
vicious  tendency,  it  was  straightway  gratified  by  Tanucci 
and  the  tutor. 

Thus  the  king  grew  up  with  an  aversion  to  the  society 
of  the  refined  and  scholarly,  and  a  preference  for  those 
who  sought  such  things  as  he  desired.  Tanucci  meantime 
governed  with  a  certain  degree  of  caution  and  wisdom; 
and  when  Ferdinand  reached  his  majority,  the  only  notice- 
able change  was  in  the  title  of  the  regents,  who  were  now 
called  ministers. 

The  first  public  act  attributed  to  Ferdinand  IV. ,  although 
in  reality  that  of  Tanucci,  was  no  less  a  thing  than  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  Naples.  This  was  in  accord 


148  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

with  the  desire  of  the  King  of  Spain,  who  had  already 
exiled  the  Order  from  his  realm,  as  Joseph  I.  had  done  in 
Portugal  and  Louis  XV.  in  France.  During  one  November 
night  in  1767  the  Jesuits  were  put  on  board  ships  and  sent 
from  Naples,  their  wealth  being  devoted  to  the  support  of 
public  schools,  colleges,  and  asylums. 

The  next  important  event  in  Ferdinand's  life  was  his 
marriage.  He  was  betrothed  to  Maria  Josephine,  daughter 
of  the  Emperor  of  Austria;  all  preparations  were  made 
for  the  wedding,  when  the  bride  fell  ill  and  died.  A  little^ 
later  a  second  sister  was  chosen  to  take  her  place ;  and 
after  a  journey  through  Italy,  where  she  was  received  with 
honors,  she  was  welcomed  by  Ferdinand  at  Portella  in 
May,  1768.  After  a  few  days  at  the  lovely  palace  of 
Caserta,  the  royal  pair  made  their  public  entrance  into 
Naples  on  May  22.  The  extensive  fetes  celebrating  this 
marriage  were  continued  during  several  months,  to  the 
delight  of  both  the  sovereigns,  who  were  equally  devoted 
to  a  life  of  pleasure. 

If  the  onlookers  fancied  that  such  amusements  would 
absorb  Queen  Caroline,  they  soon  perceived  their  error. 
Although  but  sixteen  years  old,  she  was  a  daughter  of 
Maria  Theresa,  and  proposed  to  be  an  important  element 
in  the  government  of  her  husband's  kingdom,  — the  largest 
in  Italy.  Her  marriage  contract  had  provided  that  after 
the  birth  of  a  son  she  should  have  a  seat  in  the  Council 
of  State,  and  after  one  year  she  was  able  to  claim  this 
privilege.  She  saw  in  Tanucci  a  hateful  rival,  and  by  her 
influence  he  was  dismissed  in  1777,  never  again  to  emerge 
from  his  retirement. 

During  the  forty-three  years  that  he  administered  the 
affairs  of  Naples  much  good  was  accomplished,  especially 
after  the  exclusion  of  the  Jesuits,  when  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  advancement  of  education.  The  universities  and 
academies  were  improved,  and  the  professors  and  literary 


CARLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.      149 

men  of  the  kingdom  were  received  at  court,  and  treated 
with  the  consideration  accorded  them  elsewhere ;  all  the 
more  as  the  queen  aimed  to  be  a  patron  of  science  and 
letters. 

After  deposing  Tanucci,  the  queen  introduced  many 
changes.  She  succeeded  in  having  an  Austrian,  the 
Marquis  della  Sambuca,  made  minister  in  place  of 
Tanucci.  The  army  was  her  first  care ;  and  an  Austrian 
officer  was  put  in  authority  over  it,  while  an  Englishman, 
Sir  Acton  Bell,  was  made  Minister  of  the  Marine,  then 
Minister  of  War,  and  later  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 
A  foreigner,  a  soldier  of  fortune,  ambitious  and  covetous, 
hie  cared  nothing  for  the  fate  of  Naples ;  but  succeeding 
in  securing  the  absolute  confidence  of  the  king  and  the 
extreme  favor  of  the  queen,  he  soon  acquired  unusual 
powers. 

Queen  Caroline,  now  twenty-five  years  old,  handsome 
and  proud  with  the  dominating  pride  of  her  race,  found 
it  easy  to  rule  her  husband,  and  ruling  him  to  rule  his 
kingdom.  She  favored  intimate  relations  with  France  and 
England,  and  ended  all  connections  with  Spain;  and 
while  entertaining  many  schemes  for  the  welfare  of  the 
Neapolitans,  she  was  unwisely  elated  from  feeling  herself 
to  be  the  centre  of  the  hopes  of  the  people. 

A  detailed  history  of  this  period  is  most  interesting, 
and  with  the  dramatis  personce  that  I  have  indicated  there 
was  an  opportunity  for  many  unusual  situations  in  the 
court,  the  political  and  the  social  circles  of  Naples.  But 
our  space  limits  us  to  the  most  important  features  of  this 
reign. 

The  Emperor  Joseph  of  Austria  visited  his  sister  in 
1784,  and  disseminated  his  views  of  political  reform 
among  the  educated  Neapolitans.  Ferdinand  and  Caro- 
line then  visited  Vienna,  and  returned  to  carry  out  a  phi- 
lanthropic scheme  by  establishing  within  their  territory  a 


150  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

small  model  of  their  ideal  of  what  a  government  should 
be.  It  was  called  San  Leucio,  and  for  it  they  made  a 
code  of  laws  based  on  the  principle  that  a  government 
should  emanate  from  the  people,  not  from  monarchs. 
All  this  is  very  curious  when  viewed  in  the  light  of  the 
subsequent  policy  which  these  sovereigns  pursued. 

The  news  of  the  French  Revolution  and  its  horrors  pro- 
duced a  great  effect  on  Ferdinand  and  his  queen,  who  was 
the  sister  of  Marie  Antoinette ;  and  the  idea  of  a  Republic 

—  which  had  apparently  appealed  to  Caroline  with  great 
force  —  assumed  a  new  aspect  to  her  just  when  the  Neapol- 
itans, who  had  imbibed  a  desire  for  liberty,  were  hoping 
that  their  dreams  were  about  to  be  realized. 

As  soon  as  the  execution  of  the  royal  family  of  France 
was  known  at  Naples,  the  court  went  into  mourning,  and 
the  celebration  of  the  Carnival  was  forbidden.  When  the 
French  Republic  sent  its  ambassador  to  Naples,  he  was  not 
acknowledged ;  and  Ferdinand  IV.  endeavored  to  prevent 
the  other  Italian  powers  and  the  Ottoman  court  from 
recognizing  the  new  government. 

But  suddenly  a  fleet  of  fourteen  French  men-of-war 
sailed  into  the  Bay  of-  Naples  in  command  of  Admiral  La 
Touche,  and  in  reply  to  Ferdinand's  demand  for  the  reason 
of  their  coming,  he  was  asked  why  he  had  refused  to 
receive  the  French  ambassador,  and  why  he  was  acting 
as  the  enemy  of  France.  For  these  offences  La  Touche 
demanded  reparation  or  war.  The  queen  was  so  alarmed 
that  she  begged  for  peace;  she  was  supported  by  many 
advisers  of  the  king,  and  he  soon  satisfied  La  Touche  by 
a  promise  of  neutrality  in  the  wars  of  Europe  and  of 
friendship  for  France.  The  fleet  then  departed ;  but  meet- 
ing a  severe  storm,  it  put  back  and  remained  for  repairs, 

—  a  privilege  that  could  not  be  refused  to  an  ally. 
During  this  time  the  Neapolitans,  especially  the  young 

men,    were   much   in  the   company   of    La   Touche   and 


CARLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.      151 

Makau,  the  ambassador.  They  were  incited  to  hold 
secret  meetings,  and  to  strive  for  Liberty  and  Equality; 
and  at  a  certain  supper  the  Neapolitans  hung  little  red 
caps,  the  Jacobin  symbol,  on  their  breasts.  The  Neapol- 
itan government  knew  of  this,  and  the  repairs  of  the  ships 
were  hastened  by  effective  help.  Provisions  and  pure 
water  were  abundantly  supplied,  and  all  being  in  proper 
order  the  fleet  again  sailed  away. 

The  hour  of  reckoning  had  now  come,  and  many  per- 
sons who  had  been  friendly  to  the  French  were  seized  by 
night  and  imprisoned.  Their  friends  believed  that  they 
had  been  murdered  or  sent  to  distant  fortresses ;  but  later 
it  was  found  that  they  were  in  the  frightful  dungeons  of  S. 
Elmo,  each  in  solitary  confinement,  sleeping  on  the  bare 
ground  and  eating  the  vilest  prison  fare.  Many  of  these 
prisoners  were  scholars,  accustomed  to  luxury  and  a  quiet 
life ;  and  their  jailers  were  ferocious,  inhuman  monsters. 
The  king  now  established  a  Junta  of  State  for  the  trial  of 
traitors,  and  enlarged  the  prisons.  All  Naples  was  in 
terror. 

Attention  was  then  given  to  increasing  the  army,  and  a 
secret  treaty  was  made  with  England  against  France.  In 
1793,  in  the  siege  of  Toulon,  where  Napoleon  Bonaparte 
won  his  first  honors,  the  Allies  were  defeated,  and  the 
news  of  this  increased  the  alarm  of  the  Neapolitan  govern- 
ment; all  possible  means  were  used  to  raise  money,  but 
little  was  obtained. 

Meantime  the  Junta  of  State  was  indefatigable  in  its 
work,  and  was  said  to  have  proofs  of  the  treason  of  20,000 
persons,  while  more  than  twice  that  number  were  sus- 
pected. A  few  executions  occurred,  and  a  reign  of  terror 
existed  among  the  people  and  in  the  palace.  The  royal 
family  feared  for  their  own  safety;  the  body-guard  was 
constantly  changed,  and  attendants  dismissed,  while  a 
terrible  anxiety  made  life  a  torment. 


152  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Ferdinand  was  so  much  alarmed  by  the  successes  of 
Bonaparte  in  Italy  that  in  spite  of  his  alliance  with  Eng- 
land he  made  a  treaty  with  France  in  1796,  a  secret  con- 
dition of  which  obliged  Naples  to  pay  8,000,000  francs  to 
the  French  treasury.  But  when,  two  years  later,  it  was 
known  that  Bonaparte  was  in  Egypt,  and  that  Admiral 
Nelson  had  destroyed  a  large  part  of  the  French  fleet, 
there  was  great  rejoicing,  which  was  soon  increased  when 
Nelson  himself  arrived  in  the  bay  with  English  ships-of- 
war.  The  king  and  queen,  with  Sir  William  and  Lady 
Hamilton,  — the  English  ambassador,  — went  out  to  meet 
the  Admiral,  who  was  regarded  as  the  champion  of  sover- 
eigns and  the  protector  of  thrones. 

Ferdinand  bestowed  a  rich  sword  upon  the  hero,  and 
accompanied  the  gift  with  the  most  extravagant  praises  of 
the  Admiral;  Caroline  presented  several  costly  gifts  to 
Nelson,  among  them  being  a  jewel  inscribed  "  To  the  hero 
of  Aboukir;"  while  Sir  William  Hamilton  thanked  him 
for  all  he  had  done  in  the  name  of  England,  and  Lady 
Hamilton  expressed  her  admiration,  while  her  beautiful 
face  was  suffused  with  emotion.  The  whole  city  was 
tumultuous  with  excitement  and  pleasure;  the  palace 
was  thronged,  the  great  theatre  was  illuminated,  and  the 
sovereigns,  accompanied  by  Nelson,  were  received  with 
shouts  of  joy.  The  queen  and  the  ladies  of  the  court 
wore  girdles  and  badges  on  which  was  inscribed  "  Long 
live  Nelson !  "  The  French  ambassador  was  naturally 
curious  to  know  the  reason  for  this  reception  of  the  man 
who  had  so  successfully  opposed  his  countrymen,  while 
Naples  was  an  ally  of  France.  He  was  told  that  Nelson 
had  threatened  to  bombard  the  city  if  not  allowed  to  anchor 
in  the  bay,  no  explanation  of  the  welcome  to  the  Admiral 
and  the  honors  heaped  upon  him  being  given. 

The  queen,  haughty  and  ambitious,  had  not  yet  appre- 
ciated the  weakness  of  Naples  nor  the  strength  of  other 


CARLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.      153 

powers,  and  was  eager  to  make  war  on  France,  in  which 
desire  Sir  William  Hamilton  supported  and  encouraged 
her.  All  possible  preparations  were  set  on  foot ;  and  when 
the  French  officers  on  the  frontier  of  Naples  demanded 
the  reason  for  this  activity,  they  were  told  that  the  object 
was  the  discipline  and  improvement  of  the  army.  But  a 
few  days  later  Ferdinand  publicly  declared  his  intention 
of  marching  to  Rome  to  reinstate  the  Pope,  whom  the 
French  had  driven  away. 

The  French  army  was  soon  in  full  march  for  an  attack 
on  Naples.  The  king,  with  the  forces  which  had  been  in 
camp,  retreated  at  once ;  and  the  people  rose,  as  one  man, 
to  receive  the  French  troops  as  a  foe  should  be  met.  They 
waged  a  deadly  warfare,  and  their  bravery  when  defending 
their  homes  and  families  offered  so  great  a  contrast  to 
the  cowardice  of  their  professional  troops  in  ordinary  ser- 
vice as  to  surprise  all  who  witnessed  this  phenomenon. 
But  this  outburst  of  patriotism  could  not  defeat  an  army 
to  which  the  fortresses  had  been  surrendered  by  traitors ; 
it  served  to  delay,  but  not  to  prevent,  the  approach  of  the 
enemy.  The  situation  was  indeed  desperate,  but  creditable 
historians  believe  that  a  brave  and  loyal  king  might  have 
saved  his  crown. 

But  Ferdinand's  cowardly  fear  so  controlled  him  that 
he  listened  to  no  counsels  to  courage  and  resistance.  He 
fled  with  his  family  to  an  English  vessel,  and  embarked 
for  Sicily,  leaving  Naples  placarded  with  the  appointment 
of  a  regent  and  the  declaration  that  he  would  soon  return 
with  a  large  army.  Contrary  winds  detained  his  ship 
in  the  bay  for  three  days,  during  which  time  every  pos- 
sible influence  was  used  to  induce  the  king  to  return,  but 
without  avail.  He  had  scarcely  sailed,  when  a  terrific 
storm  arose.  Nelson's  ship,  which  carried  the  king,  out- 
rode the  gale  with  great  difficulty;  her  masts  and  yard 
were  badly  injured.  One  of  the  young  children  of  the 


154  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

king  died  in  Lady  Hamilton's  arms;  all  were  in  terror, 
and  the  sovereigns  believed  that  the  ship  must  go  down. 
As  they  neared  Palermo,  help  was  sent  out,  and  a  pilot,  to 
whom  Nelson  gladly  resigned  the  command  of  his  vessel. 

A  Neapolitan  man-of-war,  commanded  by  Admiral 
Caracciolo,  appeared  near  Nelson's  ship  in  the  midst  of 
the  tempest.  It  behaved  well,  and  could  easily  have  gone 
on  its  way,  but  remained  near  at  hand  in  order  to  aid  the 
king  should  it  be  needful.  This  vessel  rode  unscathed 
where  Nelson's  ship  was  all  but  lost,  and  Caracciolo  was 
much  praised  and  favorably  compared  with  the  English 
Admiral.  Nelson's  pride  was  so  touched,  and  his  anger 
so  aroused,  that  he  later  revenged  himself  as  only  a  cruel 
coward  could  do. 

At  Naples  all  was  dire  confusion.  Great  indignation 
was  felt  that  Ferdinand  had  not  only  deserted,  but  also 
robbed  his  people,  taking  away  the  crown  jewels,  many 
antiquities,  and  rare  works  of  art,  and  at  least  20,000,000 
ducats.  He  thus  left  the  State  convulsed  by  civil  and 
foreign  war,  with  no  proper  government,  and  destitute  of 
money. 

The  French  easily  mastered  a  kingdom  in  this  condition ; 
and  on  January  23,  1799,  General  Championnet  raised  a 
flag  of  peace,  and  addressed  the  people,  persuading  them 
to  sacrifice  no  more  lives  in  warfare,  but  to  yield  to  a 
general  who  would  bring  peace,  abundance,  and  good 
government,  respect  their  persons  and  property,  the 
church  and  their  religious  customs,  and  pay  his  devotions 
to  S.  Januarius. 

Championnet  spoke  Italian  fluently,  and  was  understood 
by  all.  The  leader  of  the  Lazzaroni1  requested  that  a 

1  The  name  Lazzaroni  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  that  of 
Lazarus  in  the  Scripture  parable.  In  Naples  it  designated  a  class 
that  were  employed  in  the  humblest  occupations  in  times  of  peace, 
having  no  fixed  homes  or  method  of  life.  They  played  an  important 


CAKLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.      155 

guard  of  honor  be  placed  around  S.  Januarius,  and  when 
two  companies  of  grenadiers  were  detailed  for  this  duty, 
the  soldiers  shouted,  "All  reverence  to  S.  Januarius!" 
while  the  Lazzaroni  ran  beside  them,  crying,  "  Long  live 
the  French !  "  Never  was  a  peace  made  more  quickly  and 
happily.  As  the  news  spread  over  the  city,  arms  dropped 
from  the  hands  of  the  people ;  the  tricolor  floated  above 
the  castles,  and  French  bands  played  inspiriting  music. 
The  unclouded  heavens  seemed  to  smile,  and  all  Naples 
rejoiced.  Even  the  republicans  shared  in  the  general 
delight,  and  the  sight  of  the  thousands  of  dead  still  lying 
in  the  streets  was  powerless  to  dim  the  happiness  which 
the  cessation  of  hostilities  brought. 

General  Chainpionnet,  having  published  the  following 
edict,  made  a  magnificent  public  entry  into  Naples :  — 

"  Neapolitans,  be  free  ;  if  you  know  how  to  enjoy  the  gift  of 
freedom,  the  French  Republic  will  be  amply  rewarded  in  your 
happiness  for  her  dead  and  for  the  war.  If  any  among  you 
still  prefer  the  government  which  has  ceased  to  exist,  let  them 
disencumber  this  free  soil  of  their  presence  ;  let  them  fly  from 
us  who  are  citizens,  and  let  slaves  go  among  slaves.  The 
French  army  will  take  the  name  of  the  army  of  Naples,  as  a 
pledge  and  solemn  vow  to  maintain  your  rights,  and  to  use 
those  arms  to  advance  your  liberties.  We  French  will  respect 
the  national  worship,  and  the  sacred  rights  of  property  and 
person.  Your  magistrates  will,  by  their  paternal  administra- 
tion, provide  for  the  tranquillity  and  happiness  of  the  citizens  ; 
let  the  terrors  of  ignorance  disappear,  let  the  fury  of  fanaticism 
be  dispelled,  and  may  you  be  as  solicitous  to  serve  us,  as  the 
perfidy  of  your  fallen  government  was  to  injure  us." 

part  in  all  revolutions  and  strife,  and  were  accustomed  annually  to 
elect  a  Capo  Lazzaro,  or  chief,  who  had  great  power  over  them  and 
was  recognized  by  the  Neapolitan  government.  Recently  the  Lazza- 
roni have  lost  many  of  their  peculiarities,  and  the  term  is  now  almost 
confined  to  the  boatmen  and  fishermen,  who  are  among  the  most 
useful  and  industrious  classes  in  Naples. 


156  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

At  evening  the  city  was  illuminated,  and  Vesuvius, 
which  had  been  dark  for  years,  sent  forth  a  brilliant 
flame,  which  the  Neapolitans  regarded  as  an  omen  of 
future  prosperity.  Thus  was  the  Parthenopean  Republic 
established. 

A  provisional  government  was  instituted,  and  important 
changes  made,  such  as  dividing  the  kingdom  into  depart- 
ments on  the  French  plan,  and  many  ancient  customs 
were  abolished.  At  the  same  time  an  enormous  tax  was 
imposed ;  and  although  young  orators  constantly  assured 
the  people  that  benefits  would  soon  result  from  the  new 
system  that  would  far  outweigh  the  present  disadvantages, 
those  who  were  suffering  poverty  and  hunger  did  not  find 
that  this  eloquence  clothed  or  fed  them,  and  a  threatening 
spirit  was  awaking  on  all  sides.  Just  as  Championnet 
perceived  that  palliative  measures  were  necessary  to  keep 
the  peace,  he  was  recalled,  and  General  Macdonald,  a 
harsh,  severe  man,  was  sent  to  replace  him. 

Meantime  Ferdinand  had  agents  who  did  not  lessen  the 
discontent;  they  were  low  creatures,  but  the  queen  even 
held  secret  interviews  with  them  in  an  apartment  in  the 
palace  of  Palermo,  called  the  Dark  Chamber  for  this 
reason.  These  men  were  leaders  of  marauding  bands; 
and  the  names  of  Pronio,  Rodio,  and  F,ra  Diavolo  were 
soon  associated  with  deeds  worthy  of  fiends  alone.  The 
king  learned  that  there  were  many  Bourbonists  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  and  authorized  Cardinal 
Ruffo  to  land  in  Calabria,  and  rouse  the  people  to  a  revolt 
against  the  Republic.  Ruffo  had  long  since  proved  him- 
self cunning  and  corrupt.  He  was  soon  surrounded  by  a 
rabble  called  by  the  high-sounding  name  of  the  Army  of 
the  Holy  Faith,  the  truth  being  that  it  was  devoid  of 
faith,  and  simply  sought  an  opportunity  for  plunder. 

Troops  were  sent  from  Naples  to  oppose  Ruffo,  and 
cruelties  almost  beyond  belief  were  perpetrated  by  both 


CARLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.      157 

armies.  Whichever  side  the  people  of  the  country  favored 
they  were  butchered  and  robbed.  Probably  the  atroci- 
ties of  Ruffo's  men  were  the  worst,  as  there  was  no  pre- 
tence of  discipline  among  them,  while  a  semblance  of  it 
did  exist  among  the  French  and  Republican  troops.  The 
English  ships  landed  men  at  Castellammare,  and  Mac- 
donald  himself  led  his  soldiers  against  them  and  put 
them  to  flight,  the  beautiful  city  being  desolated.  He 
then  gave  his  attention  to  schemes  for  the  establishment 
of  order  and  confidence  in  Naples ;  but  before  he  could  put 
them  in  practice  he  was  recalled  to  France,  and  bade 
adieu  to  the  Neapolitans,  saying,  as  he  marched  away 
with  his  army,  that  the  French  would  leave  them  to  their 
own  devices. 

The  emissaries  of  the  queen  were  now  doubly  active, 
and  the  famous  Baker  conspiracy  was  formed,  which 
condemned  many  persons  to  murder  arid  their  homes  to 
destruction.  Certificates  were  secretly  distributed  to  such 
as  were  to  be  spared;  and  a  young  Captain  Baker,  brother 
of  the  chief  conspirator,  who  was  much  in  love  with 
Luigia  Sanfelice,  received  one  of  these,  and  gave  it  to 
Luigia,  explaining  its  meaning.  She,  being  in  love  with 
an  officer  named  Ferri,  —  who  she  feared  would  be  a  victim 
of  the  plot,  —  revealed  what  she  knew  to  him,  and  he,  in 
turn,  showed  the  paper  and  told  the  story  to  the  govern- 
ment officials.  Luigia  was  called  up  for  examination,  and 
by  the  clews  she  gave,  the  leaders  of  the  plot  were  seized 
and  imprisoned,  and  the  dreadful  danger  averted.  Luigia 
heard  herself  called  the  "  Saviour  of  the  Republic  "  and 
the  "  Mother  of  the  People ; "  but  a  few  months  later,  with 
another  turn  of  the  wheel  of  fate,  she  was  in  the  power  of 
the  makers  of  the  plot,  and  was  executed  in  the  historic 
market-place. 

The  provisional  government  was  but  a  weak  attempt  at 
what  a  government  should  be,  and  was  soon  forced  to  seek 


158  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

alliances  with  stronger  powers.  France  and  Spain  prom- 
ised their  support,  and  sent  ships  with  aid ;  but  the  fleets 
of  the  English  and  other  nations  friendly  to  the  Bour- 
bons, kept  such  watch  in  the  bay  that  the  Allies  could  not 
enter.  Meanwhile  the  army  of  Ruffo  was  Hearing  the 
capital,  which  was  without  defence.  There  was  no  money, 
and  even  food  was  scarce;  and  when  the  fighting  ap- 
proached the  gates,  the  government  began  to  treat  with 
Ruffo.  Terms  were  soon  made  by  which  the  war  was 
ended,  free  pardons  given  to  all,  and  those  who  did  not 
wish  to  live  under  a  monarchy  were  allowed  to  depart. 

But  when  the  next  day  broke,  Nelson  entered  the  bay 
with  his  fleet,  bringing  a  declaration  from  the  king  and 
queen  which  annulled  the  acts  of  Ruffo  and  announced 
their  purpose  to  punish  all  rebels.  The  vessels  on  which 
many  Republicans  had  embarked  were  searched,  and 
eighty-two  who  had  been  marked  for  vengeance  were  con- 
ducted to  prison,  as  well  as  others  who  had  intended  to 
leave,  according  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty.  The  Bour- 
bonists,  the  Lazzaroni,  and  the  Army  of  the  Holy  Faith 
now  repeated  in  Naples  the  atrocities  they  had  committed 
elsewhere,  and  the  Bourbon  standard  soon  floated  from 
all  the  castles. 

Fatal  and  ruinous  as  the  wars  under  the  Republic  had 
been,  the  measures  of  the  restored  sovereigns  were  more 
barbarous  than  any  which  the  bitterest  enemies  of  the 
Neapolitans  had  enacted.  Ferdinand  sailed  from  Palermo 
to  Naples,  and  remained  on  board  ship  in  the  bay,  issuing 
edicts  and  instituting  such  a  reign  of  terror  as  has  rarely 
been  exceeded  in  any  age  or  country.  The  worst  feature 
of  the  terrible  vengeance  for  which  both  Ferdinand  and 
Caroline  longed  with  an  insatiable  appetite  was  that  while 
the  lowest  and  vilest  men  were  treated  as  friends  by  the 
king,  others,  who  would  have  been  an  honor  to  any 
country,  were  imprisoned  and  murdered  by  thousands. 


CAELO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.      159 

Although  there  was  a  form  of  trial  maintained,  the  Junta 
of  State  was  simply  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  king;  to  it 
he  sent  lists  absolutely  fixing  the  sentences  to  be  pro- 
nounced by  the  so-called  judges.  From  the  history  of 
these  days  it  would  appear  that  the  sovereigns  would 
not  have  been  satiated  by  the  vengeance  they  enjoyed  had 
they  acted  quite  independently;  and,  as  is  usual  with 
tyrants,  they  had  advisers  who  urged  them  to  follow 
their  most  evil  inclinations.  The  worst  of  these  was  that 
Cardinal  Ruffo  who  had  collected  and  commanded  the 
army  of  the  Holy  Faith.  Second  to  him  we  blush  to  name 
Lord  Nelson.  A  hero  commanding  our  respect  and 
admiration  at  Aboukir  becomes  a  despicable  tool  of 
perjury  and  tyranny  at  Naples,  whose  debasing  recom- 
pense by  Lady  Hamilton  makes  him  even  more  unworthy 
of  regard  than  does  his  political  perfidy. 

Ruffo  was  loaded  with  honors  and  riches,  not  only  for 
himself,  but  in  perpetuity  for  his  family ;  and  Ferdinand 
conferred  these  gifts  in  letters  expressive  of  his  gratitude 
and  personal  attachment  to  this  personification  of  vice  and 
cruelty. 

Seldom  has  the  proverb,  "Whom  the  gods  wish  to 
destroy  they  first  make  mad  "  been  so  forcibly  illustrated 
as  in  the  case  of  Nelson,  over  whom  lust  and  revenge 
obtained  complete  mastery.  Lady  Hamilton,  who  made 
one  of  the  party  which  welcomed  Nelson  on  his  arrival  at 
Naples,  was  a  beautiful  woman  of  low  origin  and  character 
who  had  married  the  English  ambassador,  and  with 
inimitable  tact  had  at  once  adapted  herself  to  a  position 
at  court  as  if  she  had  always  been  surrounded  with  dig- 
nity and  fortune.  At  first  the  queen  had  treated  Lady 
Hamilton  with  an  air  of  extreme  condescension ;  but  when 
she  perceived  that  Nelson  was  in  love  with  the  lady, 
Caroline  saw  in  her  a  tool  that  would  be  useful  in  carry- 
ing out  her  plans.  From  that  time  the  two  women  were 


160  NAPLES  AND  ITS   ENVIRONS. 

almost  inseparable,  and  it  is  possible  that  their  common 
flight  and  misfortunes  engendered  a  friendship  even  be- 
tween two  women  so  void  of  any  noble  sentiment  as  were 
these  two. 

Thus  it  happened  that  when  the  queen  learned  of  the 
capitulation  of  the  castles  at  Naples  and  the  terms  by 
which  pardon  was  extended,  and  those  who  wished  it 
allowed  to  depart,  she  sent  her  friend  Emma  with  letters 
to  Nelson,  who  was  sailing  from  Palermo  to  Naples. 
These  letters  from  both  sovereigns  persuaded  Nelson  to 
revoke  the  treaty  which  had  been  so  made  as  to  deprive 
the  sovereigns  of  their  revenge  upon  those  whom  they  chose 
to  term  rebels. 

Lady  Hamilton,  in  a  fast-sailing  corvette,  overtook 
Nelson  as  he  was  entering  the  bay.  He  was  but  too  happy 
to  welcome  her,  but  when  he  learned  her  errand  he  refused 
to  do  what  was  desired  of  him;  but  Lady  Hamilton  so 
soon  succeeded  in  persuading  him  to  her  will  that  the 
vessel  which  had  brought  her  returned  to  the  queen  with 
assurances  of  the  success  of  her  schemes.  Lady  Hamilton 
remained  with  Nelson,  and  was  still  on  his  ship  when  he 
published  the  reversal  of  the  treaty,  and  showed  himself 
the  perfidious  wretch  that  he  had  become. 

Rewards  and  favors  were  lavished  on  Sir  William  Ham- 
ilton, and  the  queen  lost  no  opportunity  to  testify  her 
gratitude  and  affection  for  his  wife.  A  magnificent  ban- 
quet was  served  in  honor  of  Nelson  in  a  saloon  in  the 
palace  at  Palermo,  which  was  fitted  up  as  a  Temple  of 
Glory.  When  Lord  Nelson  entered,  the  royal  family 
advanced  to  meet  him.  Ferdinand  presented  to  him  a 
magnificent  sword,  and  a  patent  creating  him  Duke  of 
Bronte,  with  an  annual  pension  of  £6,000,  and  the  prince 
of  Salerno  crowned  the  Admiral  with  laurel.  Thus  was 
the  degraded  lover  of  Lady  Hamilton  flattered  by  those 
who  had  made  him  their  tool. 


CARLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.      161 

But  his  cup  of  crime  was  not  yet  full.  Feeling  his 
power  and  cherishing  a  deep  hatred  of  Admiral  Caracciolo, 
—  for  no  other  known  cause  than  the  glory  his  superior 
seamanship  had  brought  the  Neapolitan,  —  when  he  heard 
of  the  arrest  of  that  brave  officer,  Nelson  demanded  him 
of  Cardinal  Ruffo.  It  was  supposed  that  his  motive  was 
to  save  Caracciolo,  and  when  Nelson's  jealousy  of  him  was 
remembered  all  were  ready  to  praise  his  magnanimity. 
But  their  mistake  was  soon  apparent.  Nelson  at  once 
called  a  court-martial  on  his  own  ship,  and  when  the 
judges  were  too  lenient  to  please  him,  he  demanded  a 
sentence  of  death  for  the  brave  Neapolitan.  On  that  very 
day  Caracciolo  was  hung  at  the  yard-arm  of  one  of  his 
own  frigates,  and  at  evening  the  body  was  weighted  and 
cast  into  the  sea. 

Some  days  later,  as  Ferdinand  arrived  off  Naples,  he 
saw  a  human  corpse  half  out  of  the  water,  its  face  raised, 
approaching  his  ship  with  a  menacing  air.  As  it  came 
near  he  recognized  the  face,  and  exclaimed,  "  Caracciolo ! 
What  can  this  dead  man  want  ?  " 

"He  asks  for  Christian  burial,"  responded  a  chaplain, 
who  was  present. 

"Let  him  have  it,"  said  the  king;  and  the  body  was 
later  interred  in  a  church  built  by  poor  fishermen  in  the 
Strada  S.  Lucia. 

Many  interesting  details  could  be  given  concerning  the 
scholars,  nobles,  and  valuable  men  who  perished  to 
satisfy  the  insane  thirst  for  blood  which  possessed  the 
king  and  queen ;  but  want  of  space  forbids.  Every  place 
available  for  a  prison  was  filled.  At  least  thirty  thousand 
human  beings  were  crowded  into  underground  vaults  and 
dark,  loathsome  dungeons ;  they  were  denied  beds,  lights, 
and  all  sorts  of  utensils;  were  tormented  by  thirst  and 
hunger,  loaded  with  chains,  and  even  beaten  by  the  brutal 
keepers  placed  over  them.  Forty  thousand  were  threat- 

11 


162  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

ened  with  death,  and  a  greater  number  with  exile;  and 
no  words  can  portray  the  misery  of  the  whole  city. 

At  length  these  horrors  palled  upon  the  perpetrators  of 
them,  and  in  order  to  be  free  from  the  Army  of  the  Holy 
Faith,  it  was  sent  to  join  the  troops  already  with  the 
Germans  at  Rome,  and  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  French 
forces,  the  Neapolitans  promptly  took  possession  of  the 
Papal  City.  News  was  soon  received  of  the  increasing 
success  of  Bonaparte,  which  was  making  him  the  dread  of 
all  the  enemies  of  France.  The  greatest  uneasiness  was 
felt  by  the  government  at  Naples,  from  the  king  down  to 
the  lesser  officials ;  that  the  people  hated  their  oppressors 
and  would  welcome  any  deliverer  from  their  present  suffer- 
ings had  become  but  too  evident. 

Abject  fear  now  inspired  Ferdinand  and  Caroline  to 
attempt  what  no  kindly  feeling  had  ever  suggested.  An 
amnesty  was  proclaimed ;  three  thousand  men  had  escaped 
from  the  country;  four  thousand  had  been  exiled,  and 
great  numbers  had  been  executed;  seven  thousand  were 
released  from  prison,  leaving  many  still  immured  in  horrid 
dungeons.  When  the  amnesty  relieved  the  people  from 
the  fear  of  immediate  calamity,  they  had  time  to  remember 
and  reflect  upon  the  cruelties  that  had  been  perpetrated 
in  their  midst,  and  hatred  was  all  too  mild  a  word  to 
express  their  feelings  toward  their  sovereigns.  There 
was  great  need  of  money,  which  could  only  be  procured 
by  violent  and  unjust  measures;  and  all  the  while  the 
news  of  the  increasing  achievements  of  Bonaparte  inspired 
the  Neapolitans  with  the  hope  that  he  might  even  come 
to  them. 

Ferdinand's  eldest  son  had  married  an  Austrian  arch- 
duchess, and  an  heir  was  born  to  the  young  couple  about 
this  time,  which  strengthened  the  bond  between  Austria 
and  Naples.  Queen  Caroline  was  on  her  way  to  Vienna 
to  seek  aid  from  her  brother,  the  Emperor  Francis,  when, 


CARLO  BORBONE  AND  FERDINAND  IV.      163 

at  Leghorn,  she  received  an  account  of  the  battle  of 
Mareugo;  this  news  caused  her  and  her  friends  the  gravest 
alarm.  But  after  two  years  of  anxiety  and  fear  the  Peace 
of  Amiens  brought  them  fresh  courage.  Ferdinand,  not 
having  learned  wisdom,  restored  the  Junta  of  State,  and 
reopened  the  trials  for  political  offences,  ordering  all 
records  of  them  to  be  burned,  lest  they  should  testify 
against  him  in  the  future. 

In  1804  the  Peace  was  broken ;  in  1805  Napoleon  entered 
Vienna;  and  his  punishment  of  the  Neapolitans,  who  had 
so  often  played  false  to  friends  and  enemies  alike,  was  not 
long  delayed.  No  army  could  be  gathered.  Ferdinand 
fled  to  Sicily,  leaving  his  son  as  regent.  The  queen  re- 
mained for  a  time,  but  shortly  went  to  rejoin  the  king, 
taking  with  her  all  their  family,  save  the  two  elder 
princes,  who  went  to  Calabria  to  attempt  still  further 
resistance.  Their  efforts  were  useless ;  and  on  February 
14,  1806,  the  French  fleet  entered  the  bay,  and  a  new  era 
had  dawned  on  Naples. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

JOSEPH   BONAPARTE,    JOACHIM   MURAT,    FERDINAND  I.,    AND 
FRA-NCIS  I. 

1806-1830. 

WHEN  we  remember  the  condition  in  which  the  run- 
away royal  family  left  Naples,  we  cannot  think  that 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  conferred  a  favor  on  his  brother 
Joseph  when  he  sent  him,  with  an  army  of  fifty  thousand 
French  soldiers,  to  occupy  the  deserted  throne  under  the 
title  of  "Lieutenant  to  the  Emperor  Napoleon,"  and 
clearly  outlined  the  course  he  was  to  pursue  in  one  sen- 
tence :  "  All  sentiments  yield  now  to  reasons  of  state. 
I  recognize  as  relatives  only  those  who  serve  me." 

King  Ferdinand,  when  seeking  his  own  safety,  had 
commanded  his  regents  never  to  yield  the  fortresses  of  the 
kingdom,  no  matter  what  the  stress  might  be.  But  his 
cowardly  example  was  followed  rather  than  his  commands ; 
and  while  the  conquerors  were  as  far  away  as  Aversa, 
Naples  sent  her  submission  to  them.  A  few  towns  made 
a  slight  resistance;  but  on  February  14,  1806,  the  first 
battalions  of  the  invading  army  entered  the  capital,  and 
were  quickly  followed  by  the  new  ruler. 

The  Neapolitans  showed  a  certain  wisdom  in  their  wel- 
come to  Joseph  Bonaparte,  since  they  were  in  his  power, 
and  could  have  no  fear  of  his  making  them  worse  off  than 
he  found  them.  He  established  himself  in  the  Palace,  and 
called  himself  "Prince  of  France,  Grand  Elector  of  the 
Empire.  Lieutenant  of  the  Emperor,  and  Commander-in- 


JOSEPH  BONAPARTE.  165 

chief  of  the  Neapolitan  Army."  He  at  once  published  a 
proclamation  from  Napoleon,  which,  after  reciting  the 
various  perfidies  of  Ferdinand,  ended  thus:  — 

"  The  House  of  Naples  has  ceased  to  reign  ;  its  existence  is 
incompatible  with  the  repose  of  Europe,  and  with  the  honor  of 
my  crown.  Soldiers,  march ;  and  if  the  weak  battalions  of  the 
tyrants  of  the  sea  have  the  courage  to  await  you,  drive  them 
back  into  the  waves.  Show  the  world  how  we  punish  perjury. 
Hasten  to  inform  me  that  all  Italy  is  ruled  by  my  laws  or  by 
those  of  my  allies ;  that  the  most  beautiful  land  on  earth  is 
at  last  delivered  from  the  yoke  imposed  on  it  by  the  most 
perfidious  of  mankind.  .  .  .  Soldiers,  my  brother  is  with  you  ; 
he  is  the  repository  of  my  thoughts  and  of  my  authority.  I 
confide  in  him ;  do  you  confide  in  him  likewise." 

The  army  essentially  subdued  the  whole  kingdom,  and 
although  Joseph  was  not  inclined  to  cruelty,  the  constant 
discovery  of  conspiracies  forced  him  to  certain  severities ; 
the  prisons  were  full,  as  before,  and  the  number  of  the 
accused  was  still  enormous.  The  occupation  of  the  island 
of  Capri  by  the  English  added  to  the  unsettled  condition 
of  Naples.  Under  the  administration  of  Colonel  Lowe  — 
later  the  jailer  of  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena  —  the  island 
became  a  retreat  for  brigands,  and  a  nest  for  the  hatching 
of  plots.  The  island  of  Ponza,  too,  and  certain  ports  in 
Calabria,  were  still  in  favor  of  the  Bourbons,  and  Queen 
Caroline  was  active  in  sending  her  friends  wherever  they 
could  make  trouble. 

By  a  decree  from  Paris,  Joseph  was  proclaimed  King 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  on  March  30.  Three  French  senators 
were  sent  to  Naples  to  apprise  him  of  this  honor,  and  as 
the  new  king  was  in  Calabria,  they  went  thither  and 
accompanied  him  back  to  the  capital,  which  he  reached 
in  May,  attended  by  a  royal  cortege.  The  people  regarded 
his  entrance  with  silence  and  doubt.  The  kingdom 
was  so  convulsed  with  plots  and  counterplots  that  even 


166  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

the  volatile  Neapolitans  could  not  be  aroused  to  enthu- 
siasm by  such  displays  as  had  been  but  too  frequently 
repeated. 

The  assaults  of  the  English  and  of  Ferdinand's  friends 
became  bolder  and  more  effective  until  the  battle  of 
Maida,  in  Calabria,  brought  them  success  and  courage, 
while  the  French,  driven  to  the  extreme  of  rage  and 
suspicion,  pursued  the  most  barbarous  policy.  Great 
numbers  of  men,  guilty,  suspected,  and  innocent,  were 
executed  with  unheard  of  cruelties.  Colletta  relates  that 
he  actually  saw  a  man  impaled  in  the  town  of  Lagonegro 
by  the  command  of  a  French  colonel. 

Brigandage  was  encouraged  by  the  English  and  Sici- 
lians, who  dignified  it  with  the  title  of  loyalty  to  Ferdinand, 
and  a  guerilla  chief  who  was  captured  bore  on  his  person 
the  following  order,  signed  by  no  less  a  person  than  Wil- 
liam Sidney  Smith:  "You  will  rouse  all  your  partisans 
in  the  kingdom  of  Naples;  you  will  excite  tumults  in  the 
country,  and  point  out  the  houses  to  be  burned  and  the 
rebels  to  be  killed." 

The  French  army  suffered  greatly  from  the  heat,  and 
was  so  much  reduced  in  numbers  that  Joseph  was  inclined 
to  send  it  to  the  Abruzzi  to  await  a  cooler  season;  but 
Saliceti,  the  minister  of  police,  opposed  this  measure, 
and  the  war  went  on.  The  military  history  of  this  period 
in  Naples  is  a  mingling  of  romance  and  bravery  with 
cowardice  and  treachery.  At  length,  however,  in  Febru- 
ary, 1807,  the  hopes  of  the  Bourbonists  were  extinguished 
in  the  fall  of  Reggio  and  Scilla,  and  the  French  flag  floated 
above  all  the  forts  of  the  kingdom. 

Fra  Diavolo  —  after  leading  his  band  of  three  hundred 
men  taken  from  the  galleys,  and  committing  crimes  and 
depredations  that  could  do  little  to  restore  Queen  Caroline 
to  the  throne  —  was  captured  with  letters  on  his  person 
from  both  the  queen  and  Sidney  Smith,  addressing  him  as 


JOSEPH  BONAPARTE.  167 

a  colonel  of  the  Sicilian  army.  He  died  like  a  coward, 
cursing  these  two  for  having  urged  him  to  his  enterprise. 
Queen  Caroline  hesitated  at  no  crime  which  promised  her 
revenge.  She  hated  Saliceti,  and  joined  the  Prince  of 
Canosa  in  a  plot  to  kill  him  hy  means  of  an  infernal 
machine,  which  exploded  and  buried  Saliceti's  daughter 
in  the  ruins  it  made,  and  threw  her  husband  to  such  a 
distance  as  rendered  him  insensible.  Saliceti  fell  into 
the  chasm  opened  by  the  explosion;  but  neither  of  the 
three  were  seriously  hurt,  and  the  only  results  of  the 
murderous  plot  were  the  greater  activity  of  the  police, 
the  discovery  of  conspiracies,  and  the  prompt  execution 
of  those  engaged  in  them.  One  assassin  was  arrested  who 
had  a  letter  from  Caroline  urging  him  to  murder  Joseph 
Bonaparte.  He  wore  a  bracelet  which  he  said  was  a  gift 
from  the  queen  and  made  of  her  own  hair. 

While  these  disturbances  were  occurring,  various  re- 
forms were  made  in  the  civil  administration.  The  twelve 
codes  of  law  which  existed  when  Joseph  became  ruler 
were  replaced  by  the  Code  Napoleon,  which  embodied  the 
results  of  the  advance  of  thought  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Much  attention  was  given  to  the  establishment  of 
schools,  of  various  grades,  for  both  sexes.  When  we 
remember  that  Giordano  Bruno  perished  at  the  stake, 
that  Tommaso  Campanella  was  seven  times  tortured  and 
imprisoned  twenty-seven  years,  and  that  Pietro  Gian- 
none,  who  published  his  History  of  Naples  in  1713,  had 
been  an  exile  and  prisoner  until  his  death,  on  account  of 
his  censure  of  the  court  of  Rome,  it  is  little  wonder  that 
ignorance  prevailed  in  Naples  under  its  tyrants.  No 
favorable  conditions  for  literature  having  existed  for  cen- 
turies, even  the  remembrance  that  this  peninsula  had  once 
been  the  home  of  learning  and  the  birthplace  of  great 
scholars  had  died  out.  Under  the  Hohenstaufen  and  the 
Aragonese  feeble  attempts  had  been  made  to  revive  the 


168  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

ancient  literature ;  but  the  viceroys  and  Bourbons  had  so 
stifled  all  good  and  great  thought  as  to  extinguish  every 
aspiration,  and  during  three  centuries  prior  to  1806  no 
ruler  of  Naples  had  apprehended  the  value  of  education 
for  the  people. 

Immediately  after  King  Joseph  had  proclaimed  his  new 
constitution,  he  was  recalled  to  France  and  made  king  of 
Spain.  In  July,  1808,  he  published  the  Statute  of  Bay- 
onne,  in  which  he  expressed  regret  at  leaving  Naples  before 
the  results  of  his  reign  there  could  be  shown.  His  wife 
and  family  had  lived  very  quietly  at  Naples ;  but  when  it 
was  known  that  this  lady  went  to  be  Queen  of  Spain,  she 
was  treated  with  great  respect.  French  and  native  troops 
lined  the  Toledo  as  she  passed  through  it;  many  noble 
gentlemen  and  ladies  attended  her  to  the  frontier,  and  a 
small  number  accompanied  her  to  Bayonne. 

This  queen  was  the  daughter  of  a  wealthy  merchant  of 
Marseilles,  and  the  sister-in-law  of  Bernadotte,  King  of 
Sweden.  She  led  a  quiet  and  blameless  life,  having  no 
love  for  the  ceremonies  of  a  court ;  and  as  she  never  went 
to  Spain,  she  was  a  reigning  queen  during  her  short  stay 
in  Naples  only.  After  the  many  and  great  changes  which 
occurred  in  the  fortune  and  position  of  Joseph  Bonaparte, 
he  and  his  wife  died  in  Florence,  —  he  in  1844,  and  she 
a  year  later.  Colletta  calls  attention  to  the  contrast  be- 
tween the  fate  of  this  lady  and  that  of  many  daughters  of 
royal  houses  who  were  queens  of  Naples. 

The  Norman  Constance,  queen  of  the  Emperor  Henry, 
was  betrayed  in  Salerno,  and  sent  in  chains  to  her  enemy, 
King  Tancred.  Soon  afterwards  Sibilla  was  made  a 
prisoner  and  carried  to  Germany  with  her  young  children. 
Helena,  the  wife  of  Manfred,  was  imprisoned  in  the  Castel 
delP  Ovo,  where  she  died.  Sancia,  the  widow  of  Robert, 
was  obliged  to  seek  safety  from  the  persecutions  of  her 
niece,  Joanna,  in  a  convent,  where  she  ended  her  days ; 


The  Castle  of  hcbia. 


JOACHIM  MURAT.  169 

and  the  same  Joanna,  after  a  disgraceful  life,  was  stran- 
gled, and  her  dead  body  exposed  to  public  insults.  Mar- 
garet, widow  of  Charles  of  Durazzo,  was  imprisoned  at 
Gaeta ;  while  Constance  was  repudiated  by  Ladislaus,  and 
in  spite  of  the  great  wealth  she  brought  him,  was  reduced 
to  poverty.  Joanna  II.  was  forced  to  banish  her  husband 
from  her  kingdom,  and  was  attacked  by  her  first  adopted 
son  Alphonso ;  her  second  adopted  son  Louis  also  proved 
himself  her  enemy ;  her  lover  was  beheaded,  and  his  body 
dragged  through  the  streets;  her  favorite  was  murdered 
in  the  palace,  and  she  died  of  grief.  The  wife  of  Rene*  of 
Anjou  fled  from  Naples  in  order  to  save  her  life  and  free- 
dom ;  while  a  second  Isabella,  after  being  imprisoned  in 
France,  was  dependent  on  the  charity  of  a  few  monks  in 
Ferrara.  Colletta  says :  "  I  remember  to  have  seen  in  the 
little  fortress  on  the  rocky  island  of  Ischia,  two  queens 
prisoners,  and  the  last  remnant  of  the  proud  race  of 
Aragon  humbled  and  degraded ;  and  I  have  lived  to  see 
Caroline  of  Austria,  three  times  a  fugitive  from  Naples, 
die  in  exile,  and  cursed  by  her  subjects." 

After  the  departure  of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  Napoleon  soon 
sent  another  ruler  to  Naples.  From  Bayonne,  July  15, 
1808,  the  emperor  published  the  decree:  "We  concede  to 
our  well  beloved  brother-in-law,  Joachim  Napoleon,  Grand 
Duke  of  Berg  and  Cleves,  the  throne  of  Naples  and  of 
Sicily,  vacant  by  the  accession  of  Joseph  Napoleon  to  the 
throne  of  Spain  and  of  the  Indies." 

Joachim  Murat  did  not  delay  his  arrival,  and  on  Sep- 
tember 6  made  his  public  entry  into  Naples.  His  reputa- 
tion for  bravery  had  preceded  him,  and  his  personal 
attractions  predisposed  the  people  in  his  favor.  He  wore 
no  royal  mantle,  and  in  Spirito  Santo,  when  Cardinal 
Firrao  gave  him  the  benediction,  he  stood  erect  on  the 
steps  of  the  throne,  but  with  a  reverent  manner.  During 
all  the  ceremonies  attendant  on  his  assumption  of  the 


170  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

throne  he  carried  himself  as  if  born  in  a  palace  rather 
than  in  the  cottage  of  a  Gascon  cooper. 

Murat's  first  acts  were  beneficial,  and  encouraged  the 
people  to  hope  that  in  him  they  had  found  a  benefactor, 
and  when,  shortly  after,  his  queen,  Caroline  Bonaparte, 
arrived,  she  was  welcomed  with  enthusiasm.  The  Neapol- 
itans had  heard  of  her  prudence,  gentleness,  and  beauty ; 
and  the  charm  of  her  bearing  and  the  sight  of  her  four 
lovely  children  appealed  to  her  emotional  subjects,  and 
she  became  queen  in  their  affections  as  well  as  in  their 
palace. 

Murat  at  once  decided  to  seize  Capri,  the  centre  of  plots 
for  Ferdinand  IV.  and  his  allies,  and  the  home  of  an 
army  of  robbers.  He  confided  his  plan  to  his  minister  of 
war,  and  to  General  Colletta,  who  was  to  lead  the  expe- 
dition. The  English  were  so  sure  of  their  position  that 
they  called  Capri  the  "Little  Gibraltar,"  The  taking  of 
this  island  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  episodes  of 
modern  warfare ;  and  on  October  18,  Colonel  Lowe  yielded 
himself  and  seven  hundred  and  eighty  soldiers  as  prisoners 
to  be  sent  to  Sicily  on  their  parole  not  to  fight  against  the 
Neapolitans  nor  the  French  nor  their  allies  for  a  year 
and  a  day. 

Murat  carried  on  the  reforms  of  Joseph,  and  lightened 
many  oppressive  burdens.  He  raised  the  standing  of  the 
military  profession,  which  had  been  held  in  disdain  so 
long  as  the  army  was  recruited  from  the  lowest  classes ; 
but  now,  when  gentlemen  became  soldiers  and  good  officers 
were  honored  with  distinctions,  the  profession  was  much 
esteemed.  Civil  reforms  and  wise  financial  measures  were 
inaugurated,  and  it  seemed  that  a  hopeful  era  had  dawned 
upon  Naples. 

In  1809  an  Anglo-Sicilian  expedition  appeared  off  the 
Calabrian  coast,  and  excited  alarm  in  the  seaports,  even 
to  the  capital.  But  the  enemy  was  repulsed  in  a  battle 


JOACHIM  MURAT.  171 

which  was  watched  from  the  shore  by  Murat,  the  queen, 
and  thousands  of  people.  Murat  was  meditating  an  attack 
on  Sicily,  and  had  he  been  fairly  treated  would  doubtless 
have  put  an  end  to  the  outrageous  conditions  existing 
there.  But  Caroline  of  Austria  had  wearied  of  her  life 
at  Palermo  and  of  the  dictation  of  her  allies,  and  entered 
into  a  correspondence  with  Napoleon,  as  appeared  from 
a  letter  intercepted  in  Spain.  It  is  asserted  and  believed 
by  good  authorities  that  she  made  a  secret  treaty  with  the 
emperor,  agreeing  to  drive  the  English  from  Sicily  if 
Naples  were  restored  to  her.  She  also  engaged  to  govern 
Naples  by  French  laws,  as  a  confederate  dependency  of 
France.  Of  this  scheme  both  Ferdinand  and  Murat  were 
to  be  kept  in  ignorance. 

When  Murat  began  his  preparations  for  an  attack  on 
Sicily,  it  devolved  on  Napoleon,  as  Caroline's  ally,  to 
prevent  his  accomplishment  of  this  object.  This  was 
done  through  General  Grenier,  who  received  his  orders 
from  the  emperor,  and  succeeded  in  frustrating  Murat's 
plans  until  the  autumn  storms  compelled  him  to  give  them 
up  for  that  year. 

Joachim  suspected  that  Grenier  had  acted  by  Napoleon's 
commands,  and  determined,  if  possible,  to  make  himself 
an  independent  sovereign  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Early 
in  1811  he  omitted  the  hoisting  of  the  French  colors,  using 
those  of  Naples  alone,  and  soon  dismissed  his  French 
troops,  and  published  a  decree  enforcing  a  condition  of  the 
Statute  of  Bayonne,  —  which  he  had  sworn  to  support,  — 
stipulating  that  foreigners,  unless  declared  Neapolitan 
citizens,  could  not  remain  in  Naples  nor  be  paid  for 
civil  and  military  services.  Napoleon  was  furious,  and 
reminded  Murat  that  he  was  a  foreigner  whom  he,  Napo- 
leon, had  established  on  the  throne  of  Naples.  Caroline 
Bonaparte  was  displeased  and  distressed,  and  used  every 
means  at  her  command  to  reconcile  her  husband  and 


172  NAPLES  AND  ITS   ENVIRONS. 

brother.  In  the  end  Murat  yielded,  but  his  mortification 
was  never  forgotten  nor  forgiven ;  it  was  the  cause  of  all 
his  misfortunes,  while  to  Napoleon  the  loss  of  Murat's 
friendship  was  an  irretrievable  calamity. 

In  1812  Murat  obeyed  Napoleon's  summons  to  join  him 
in  his  Russian  campaign,  leaving  Caroline  as  regent  in 
his  absence.  But  after  the  retreat  from  Moscow,  Murat 
abandoned  the  army.  Napoleon  wrote  to  Caroline  in 
great  wrath,  calling  Murat  everything  but  good.  Joachim 
replied  in  a  severe  and  dignified  letter,  in  which  he 
plainly  showed  Napoleon  his  absolute  selfishness.  After 
a  time  Caroline  brought  about  an  apparent  reconciliation 
between  these  two  high-spirited  men,  and  in  the  following 
year  Murat  was  again  beside  Napoleon  on  the  battlefields 
of  Silesia  and  Bohemia,  and  when,  late  in  1813,  they 
separated  —  never  to  meet  again  in  this  life  —  they  parted 
with  mutual  sentiments  of  sincere  affection. 

When  Murat  again  reached  Naples,  he  was  advised  and 
urged,  both  by  Neapolitans  and  other  Italians,  to  be  the 
leader  of  a  new  movement,  and  make  himself  the  ruler 
of  a  united  Italy,  — a  thought  which  an  Italian  party 
ardently  cherished.  Alas!  this  was  a  hope  to  be  long 
deferred.  Here  began  a  movement,  which,  if  correctly 
recounted,  would  require  a  separate  volume;  the  result, 
however,  can  be  concisely  given. 

The  English  and  Austrians  so  influenced  Murat  in  the 
South,  and  Beauharnais  in  the  North  of  Italy,  that  instead 
of  uniting  their  forces  and  their  aims,  and  working 
together  for  the  unification  of  Italy,  as  they  might  have 
done,  they  were  disunited.  In  the  end  they  escaped  from 
French  control  only  to  fall  into  the  power  of  the  two- 
headed  eagle;  and  when,  in  1814,  the  Italians  hoped  to 
choose  their  own  ruler,  they  were  commanded  by  Austria 
to  receive  those  whom  she  would  place  over  them.  While 
Austria  had  thus  mastered  Italy,  there  had  been  plots 


FERDINAND   I.  173 

and  counterplots,  in  which  Murat,  Lord  Bentinck,  Ferdi- 
nand IV.,  and  Caroline  of  Austria,  as  well  as  Caroline 
Bonaparte,  acting  as  regent  at  Naples,  had  all  been 
involved.  But  all  had  been  useless.  There  was  noth- 
ing to  be  done  out  to  await  the  decisions  of  the  world- 
renowned  Congress  of  Vienna,  which  were  declared  on 
June  9,  1815,  by  which  Ferdinand,  now  to  be  known  as 
Ferdinand  I.,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  was  restored  to 
the  throne  of  Naples. 

The  story  of  the  two  Carolines,  queens  of  Naples,  is 
most  interesting;  and  when  we  think  of  Caroline  of 
Austria  dying  at  the  Castle  of  Hetzendorf,  in  September, 
1814,  with  no  one  to  soothe  her  agonies,  and  without  the 
last  rites  of  her  religion,  we  cannot  feel  for  her  the  pity 
which  she  gave  to  none  in  her  cruel  and  monstrous  life. 
No  one  regretted  her  death.  The  Emperor  of  Austria, 
her  nephew,  forbade  mourning  to  be  worn,  lest  it  should 
shadow  the  gayety  of  his  court.  Her  husband,  two 
months  later,  married  a  Sicilian  widow,  who  entered 
Naples  as  his  queen  when  he  returned  to  his  throne  under 
the  protection  of  Austria. 

Shortly  before  this  event  Murat  had  escaped  to  France ; 
and  Caroline  Bonaparte  —  having  secured  the  safety  of 
her  mother  and  other  relatives,  and  left  her  children  in 
the  keeping  of  the  garrison  at  Gaeta  —  embarked  on  an 
English  vessel  to  sail  for  Trieste.  While  it  still  lay  in 
the  harbor  she  heard  the  rejoicings  of  the  fickle  popu- 
lace, who  welcomed  the  return  of  their  old  tyrant,  and 
was,  so  to  speak,  the  chief  mourner  at  her  own  political 
funeral. 

From  Sicily  Ferdinand  had  sent  such  decrees,  and  the 
Emperor  of  Austria  through  his  agents  had  made  such 
promises,  that  the  Neapolitans  believed  that  at  last  they 
were  to  have  a  kindly  paternal  government.  Indeed,  the 
Hapsburg  and  Bourbon  sovereigns  had  solemnly  pledged 


174  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

their  faith  to  this,  and  the  returning  king  was  met  with 
acclamations  of  welcome. 

The  years  which  Ferdinand  had  passed  in  Sicily  had 
brought  great  changes  of  thought  to  the  world;  but, 
Bourbon-like,  the  king  ignored  this,  and  in  spite  of  his 
promises  endeavored  to  re-establish  his  former  tyranny. 
Ferdinand  used  all  his  old  duplicity,  and  was  met  with 
like  deceit  by  his  subjects,  from  his  ministers  and  judges 
down  to  the  meanest  brigand  in  his  realm.  No  worse 
political  conditions  are  possible  than  those  under  which 
Naples  suffered  after  the  return  of  the  Despots. 

A  most  painful  episode  of  the  year  1815  was  that  which 
ended  in  the  death  of  Murat.  A  plan  had  been  formed 
by  which  he  was  to  land  at  Salerno,  where  his  faithful 
followers  were  greatly  discontented  with  the  government. 
His  projects  were  well  known  at  Naples  by  means  of  a 
spy,  who  had  followed  his  movements  in  Corsica,  whence 
he  sailed  on  September  28.  He  was  driven  out  of  his 
course  by  a  storm.  His  fleet  of  six  vessels  was  scattered, 
and  he  finally  landed  at  Pizzo  in  Calabria,  with  but 
twenty-eight  followers, — a  small  number  with  which  to 
conquer  a  kingdom.  Being  coldly  received  on  landing, 
he  started  for  Monteleone,  but  was  followed,  cruelly  in- 
sulted, and  finally,  after  the  bravest  resistance,  captured 
and  imprisoned  in  the  dungeons  of  the  castle  of  Pizzo. 
After  a  mock  trial,  he  was  led  forth  and  shot  on  October 
14.  He  held  in  his  hand  a  portrait  of  his  family,  which 
was  buried  with  him  in  the  church  which  he  had  erected 
at  Pizzo  five  years  before.  Ferdinand  gave  lasting  proofs 
of  his  satisfaction  at  the  death  of  Murat.  He  decreed 
that  Pizzo  should  be  called  "  the  most  faithful  city,  that 
its  civic  imposts  should  be  abolished,  and  that  salt  should 
be  distributed  to  it  every  year  free. " 

The  Neapolitans  had  not  ceased  to  mourn  for  Murat 
when  the  plague  broke  out,  and  raged  violently  during 


FERDINAND  I.  175 

eight  months.  The  theatre  of  S.  Carlo  was  burned  in 
1816,  and  fever  and  famine  destroyed  thousands  of  human 
beings  in  the  same  year.  These  calamities  were  regarded 
by  the  people  as  God's  vengeance  for  the  murder  of  Murat. 
The  entire  Neapolitan  people  were  ill,  depressed,  and 
suffering,  and  at  the  mercy  of  a  king  who  understood 
neither  the  causes  of  their  condition  nor  the  means  by 
which  it  could  be  improved. 

The  Council  of  State  held  secret  deliberations,  and 
fawned  on  Ferdinand  by  proposing  measures  which  they 
believed  would  be  agreeable  to  him.  The  cabinet  con- 
sisted of  eight  ministers  and  the  Director  of  the  Police ; 
and  as  their  position  depended  solely  on  the  will  of  the 
king,  they  concealed  everything  that  might  tell  against 
them.  The  Prince  of  Canosa,  Director  of  Police,  was 
most  influential  with  Ferdinand.  He  had  served  him 
while  in  Sicily  by  collecting  bands  of  ruffians,  and  land- 
ing them  on  Neapolitan  soil ;  and  he  now  employed  the 
vilest  men  to  carry  out  his  schemes.  It  was  he  who  had 
murdered  Murat,  and  had  made  himself  so  notoriously  a 
persecutor,  that  the  foreign  ambassadors  at  Naples  remon- 
strated against  him  so  strongly  that  the  king  was  obliged 
to  dismiss  Canosa;  but  he  gave  him  an  annual  pension  of 
60,000  crowns,  and  added  new  titles  to  those  he  already 
possessed. 

Ferdinand  was  entirely  responsible  for  the  thousands 
of  brigands,  thieves,  and  assassins  that  infested  the  king- 
dom. He  had  constantly  employed  and  paid  them  to 
harass  Joseph  and  Murat ;  and  after  his  return  to  Naples 
these  rascals  worked  their  will  until  even  the  Bourbon 
was  ashamed,  and  took  measures  against  them  as  secret 
and  cruel  as  those  he  had  permitted  them  to  use  against 
his  enemies. 

It  is  time  to  speak  of  the  Carbonari,  —  the  Charcoal- 
burners,  as  their  name  signifies,  —  a  secret  society  which 


176  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

first  claimed  attention  about  1808.  and  after  a  short  time 
had  much  to  do  with  the  political  history  of  Naples. 
There  were  many  secret  societies  in  Italy ;  but  the  Car- 
bonari were  the  most  numerous  and  powerful  of  them  all. 
They  essayed  making  themselves  reverend  by  claiming 
descent  from  a  remote  past,  and  reciting  many  untrust- 
worthy legends  regarding  their  origin,  of  which  the  time 
and  place  is  unknown.  Not  so  their  object,  which  was  to 
arouse  the  people  to  rebellion;  and  so  rapidly  did  they 
increase,  so  many  and  widely  scattered  were  their  lodges, 
that  the  very  name  of  Carbonaro  soon  inspired  terror,  and 
was  carefully  whispered,  as  is  that  of  Fra  Diavolo  in  the 
opera  which  perpetuates  the  memory  of  the  famous 
brigand. 

In  Sicily,  Ferdinand  had  connived  with  the  Carbonari, 
hoping  to  make  them  instrumental  in  the  overthrow  of 
Murat.  After  his  return  to  the  throne,  and  the  drift  of 
his  policy  was  apparent,  they  plotted  against  him ;  and  as 
they  could  not  frankly  declare  their  revolutionary  pur- 
poses, they  claimed  to  be  an  ethical  organization.  Their 
confession  of  faith  was  simple,  and  the  declarations  of 
their  aims  has  been  translated  as  follows :  — 

"  To  render  to  Almighty  God  the  worship  due  to  Him ;  to 
serve  the  fatherland  with  zeal ;  to  reverence  religion  and  laws  ; 
to  fulfil  the  obligations  of  nature  and  friendship ;  to  be  faithful 
to  promises;  to  observe  silence,  discretion,  and  charity;  to 
cause  harmony  and  good  morals  to  prevail ;  to  conquer  the 
passions  and  submit  the  will ;  and  to  abhor  the  seven  deadly 
sins." 

The  chief  lodge  was  at  Salerno,  and  the  entire  society 
was  divided  into  four  "tribes."  Carbonaro  councils, 
senates,  and  courts  were  numerous.  Nominally  these 
Good  Cousins  —  Buoni  Cugini,  as  they  called  themselves 
—  were  to  have  a  popular  form  of  government,  but  were, 


FERDINAND  I.  177 

in  fact,  ruled  by  their  ablest  men.     Thayer  thus  describes 
some  of  their  customs :  — 

"  The  house  where  the  meeting  was  held  was  called  the 
baracca,  or  hut ;  the  lodge  itself  was  the  vendita,  or  place 
of  sale.  .  .  .  God  was  honored  with  the  title  of  Grand  Master 
of  the  Universe.  Christ,  an  Honorary  Grand  Master,  was 
known  as  the  Lamb ;  and  every  Good  Cousin  pledged  himself 
to  rescue  the  Lamb  from  the  jaws  of  the  Wolf — tyranny,  that 
is  —  which  had  long  persecuted  him.  St.  Theobald  was  patron 
of  the  society.  There  were  commonly  two  degrees,  that  of  the 
Apprentices  and  that  of  the  Masters;  but  there  were  sometimes 
others,  —  in  Sicily  we  hear  of  eleven,  — lifted  above  the  vulgar 
level.  .  .  .  The  candidate  for  apprenticeship  was  conducted  to 
the  barrack  by  his  master,  and  left  awhile  in  the  '  closet  of 
reflection.'  .  .  .  Then  he  was  brought,  always  bandaged,  to  the 
door  of  the  lodge,  in  which  was  a  slide  whereby  certain  ques- 
tions were  put  to  him  from  within.  Having  answered  these 
satisfactorily,  he  was  admitted  into  the  hall  itself,  where  the 
Grand  Master,  seated  before  a  huge  tree-trunk,  thus  addressed 
him  :  '  Profane  one  !  the  first  qualities  we  seek  are  sincerity  of 
heart  and  a  heroic  constancy  in  scorning  perils.  Have  you 
these?'  The  neophyte  replied,  ;  Yes,'  and  was  then  dis- 
missed to  take  his  '  first  journey.'  On  his  return  he  was 
asked  what  he  had  observed.  '  Noises  and  obstacles,'  was 
his  answer,  which  the  Grand  Master  expounded  in  this  wise : 
'  This  first  journey  is  the  emblem  of  human  life  ;  the  noise  of 
the  bones  and  the  obstacles  indicate  that,  being  of  frail  flesh, 
as  we  swim  in  this  vale  of  tears,  we  cannot  arrive  at  virtue 
unless  we  be  guided  by  reason  and  assisted  by  good  works.' 
After  that  the  neophyte  must  take  a  *  second  journey,'  in  which 
he  passed  through  a  fire  and  beheld  a  trunkless  human  head,  — 
the  former  symbolized  charity,  which  purges  the  heart ;  the  lat- 
ter was  a  warning  of  the  doom  of  traitors.  Having  been  brought 
back  to  the  lodge,  he  was  made  to  kneel  before  the  Grand 
Master's  block,  and  to  repeat  the  following  oath :  *  I  swear 
and  promise  on  the  institution  of  this  order  in  general,  and  on 
this  steel  (the  axe  which  served  the  Grand  Master  as  a  gavel), 

12 


178  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

the  punisher  of  perjurers,  to  keep  scrupulously  the  secrets  of 
the  Carbonic  Republic  ;  not  to  write,  grave,  nor  paint  anything 
without  having  received  written  permission.  I  swear  that  I 
will  succor  my  fellow-men,  and  especially  the  Good  Cousins 
Carbonari,  in  case  of  their  needs,  and  in  so  far  as  my  means 
permit,  and  likewise  not  to  attaint  the  honor  of  their  families. 
If  I  prove  forsworn,  I  consent  that  my  body  be  hewn  in 
pieces,  then  burnt,  and  ray  ashes  scattered  to  the  winds,  that 
my  name  be  held  in  execration  by  all  Good  Cousins  on  earth. 
And  so  God  help  me ! '  Then  he  demanded  light,  and  was 
unbandaged  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  where  the  members 
surrounded  him,  and  brandished  axes.  '  These  weapons,'  the 
Grand  Master  explained,  '  will  serve  to  slay  you  if  you  per- 
jure yourself ;  but  they  will  fly  to  your  aid  if  you  prove  faith- 
ful.' Then  the  badge,  countersign,  and  grip  were  given." 

After  this  ceremony  a  year  of  probation  was  necessary 
before  the  degree  of  Master  could  be  obtained.  The  cere- 
monies attendant  upon  this  occasion  were  a  reproduction 
of  the  Passion  of  Christ,  which  was  pursued  to  the  binding 
on  the  cross,  when  the  Good  Cousins  cried  out  that  mercy 
must  be  shown,  and  the  bandage  being  removed  from  the 
eyes,  the  candidate  stood  forth  a  Master  Carbonaro. 

The  colors  of  the  Carbonari  were  black,  signifying 
charcoal  and  faith;  red,  fire  and  chastity;  and  blue, 
smoke  and  hope.  Every  implement  used  had  its  sym- 
bolic meaning;  and  in  fact  their  system  of  symbolism  was 
far-reaching,  stretching  from  the  sublime  and  impressive 
to  the  puerile  and  unmeaning.  Their  penalties  were 
severe,  and  must  be  promptly  paid,  death  being  the  sure 
result  of  treachery. 

Many  lodges  were  known  by  curious  names,  such  as  the 
Unshirted,  the  Sleepers,  and  the  American  Hunters,  who 
numbered  Lord  Byron  in  their  company.  It  is  said  that 
women  organized  societies ;  one  existing  at  Naples  under 
the  name  of  the  Gardeneresses,  whose  pots  and  sprinklers 


FERDINAND  I.  179 

were  made  mysterious  by  their  symbolism.  All  Italy, 
France,  Germany,  and  other  countries  were  the  homes  of 
secret  societies;  but  the  first  swarmed  with  them,  and 
while  presenting  a  somewhat  hardened  and  indifferent  ap- 
pearance outwardly,  it  was,  in  reality,  torn  and  convulsed 
within  by  vehement  rebellion  against  present  wrongs,  and 
a  growing  determination  toward  better  conditions. 

However  faithful  to  their  oaths  the  Carbonari  might 
be,  so  large  an  organization  could  not  be  wholly  con- 
cealed; but  while  its  existence  was  known  to  the  sover- 
eigns of  Europe,  its  danger  was  not  appreciated.  Ferdi- 
nand, however,  was  in  great  fear  of  them;  and  his  police 
director,  Canosa,  employed  spies  and  money  for  their 
detection.  His  agents  not  only  joined  the  society,  but 
they  stirred  up  dissension  within  it.  Canosa  established 
an  opposition  to  the  Carbonari  in  the  secret  society  of 
the  Calderari,  or  Tinkers,  who  also  had  their  rites  and 
oaths,  and  swore  to  befriend  the  Bourbons. 

Had  the  Carbonari  been  blessed  with  a  prudent  and 
able  leader,  no  limit  can  be  placed  to  what  they  might 
have  accomplished,  having  imbibed  the  revolutionary 
spirit,  after  being  goaded  to  desperation  by  centuries 
of  frightful  oppression ;  but  wanting  such  a  leader  all 
sorts  of  theories  and  disagreements  sprung  up  in  their 
lodges.  Doubts  and  jealousies  existed  where  confidence 
and  good  feeling  alone  could  avail.  They  knew  how 
actively  Canosa  pursued  them,  and  they  distrusted  each 
other,  in  spite  of  the  terrible  fate  which  hung  over  a 
Carbonaro  who  violated  the  ironclad  oaths  he  had  taken. 

Even  the  astute  Metternich,  when  he  made  a  progress 
through  the  kingdom  in  1817,  failed  to  apprehend  the 
full  significance  of  the  society  of  the  Carbonari.  He 
perceived  their  want  of  union  and  their  need  of  a  leader. 
He  argued  that  as  they  had  accomplished  little  they  would 
die  out  if  left  to  themselves;  and  for  a  long  time  this 


180  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

seemed  to  be  true.    There  were  occasional  petty  outbreaks ; 
a  few  arrests  were  made,  and  all  was  quiet. 

Ferdinand  and  the  Pope  fulminated  decrees  against  all 
secret  societies;  the  king  threatened  their  leaders  with 
death,  and  the  pontiff  declared  the  Carbonari  irreligious 
and  worthy  of  extreme  punishment.  To  this  the  Car- 
bonari replied  with  the  question,  "  Was  not  the  Christian 
Church  a  secret  society  from  the  time  of  its  origin  until 
Constantine's  victory  over  Maxentius  ?  " 

At  length,  five  years  after  Ferdinand's  return,  the  fire 
which  had  smouldered  was  blown  into  a  blaze  by  the 
news  that  the  King  of  Spain  had  granted  a  constitution  to 
the  rebels  who  demanded  it;  and  on  July  2,  1820,  a  revo- 
lution was  inaugurated  at  Nola,  which  so  alarmed  the 
king  that  in  four  days  he  guaranteed  a  constitution  to 
his  subjects.  On  the  same  day  Ferdinand  made  Francis, 
Duke  of  Calabria,  his  regent,  with  full  power.  On  July  7 
Francis  issued  a  decree  promising  to  adopt  the  Spanish 
Constitution;  and  to  allay  the  suspicions  of  the  people, 
the  king  made  a  proclamation  ratifying  the  acts  of  his 
son. 

On  July  9  General  Pepe,  who  had  long  been  a  Car- 
bonaro,  led  the  entire  army  and  the  Carbonari  through 
the  streets  of  Naples  in  a  triumphal  procession.  The 
royal  family  appeared  on  a  balcony  of  the  palace,  wear- 
ing stars  in  the  Carbonari  colors,  which  the  Duchess  of 
Calabria  had  made.  The  regent  received  General  Pepe, 
and  led  him  to  the  bedside  of  the  king,  who  was  feigning 
illness.  Ferdinand  thanked  Pepe  —  the  real  head  of  the 
Carbonari,  who  had  feared  arrest  but  four  days  before, 
and  now  knelt  to  kiss  the  old  king's  hand  —  for  having 
done  a  great  service  to  his  king  and  his  country,  and 
gave  him  the  supreme  command  of  the  army.  The 
wretched  Ferdinand  then  thanked  God  that  he  had 
permitted  him  to  do  this  noble  work  in  his  old  age. 


FERDINAND  I.  181 

Pepe  left  this  audience  raised  to  a  height  which  made  him 
a  target  for  envy  and  jealousy.  He  was  not  the  wise 
and  dauntless  man  that  the  needs  of  the  hour  demanded, 
and  the  disturbances  among  his  followers  soon  proved 
that  the  training  of  secret  societies  is  not  an  adequate 
preparation  for  the  leader  of  a  great  political  movement. 

However,  on  July  13,  when  Ferdinand  heard  Mass  in 
the  royal  chapel,  and  before  the  altar,  with  his  hands  on 
the  Bible,  in  the  presence  of  the  court,  the  Junta,  and  the 
generals,  took  the  following  oath,  the  people  could  but 
believe  him  sincere,  and  rejoice  accordingly :  — 

"  '  I,  Ferdinand  of  Bourbon,  by  the  grace  of  God  and  by  the 
Constitution  of  the  Neapolitan  monarchy,  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  with  the  name  of  Ferdinand  I.,  swear,  in  the  name  of 
God  and  on  the  Holy  Evangelists,  that  I  will  defend  and  pre- 
serve the  Constitution.  Should  I  act  contrary  to  my  oath  and 
contrary  to  any  article  in  this  Constitution,  I  ought  not  to  be 
obeyed ;  and  every  act  by  which  I  contravened  it  would  be  null 
and  void.  Thus  doing,  may  God  aid  and  protect  me,  other- 
wise may  he  call  me  to  account.'  He  then  prayed :  '  Omnip- 
otent God,  who  with  thine  infinite  gaze  readest  the  soul  and 
the  future,  if  I  lie  or  intend  to  break  this  oath,  do  thou  at 
this  instant  hurl  on  my  head  the  lightnings  of  thy  vengeance.' 
Again  he  kissed  the  Bible,  and  meekly  said  to  General  Pepe, 
'  General,  believe  me,  this  time  I  have  sworn  from  the  bottom 
of  my  heart.' " 

Such  is  the  account  which  Poggi  gives  of  this  scene, 
which  was  made  even  more  impressive  by  the  repetition 
of  the  oath  by  the  regent  and  his  brother,  the  Prince  of 
Salerno.  The  old  king  then  embraced  his  sons  and 
blessed  them,  while  tears  were  plainly  seen  running  from 
the  eyes  of  these  three  Bourbons,  magnificent  actors  as 
they  were. 

The  Carbonari  exulted;  they  paraded  the  streets  in 
uniform;  their  orators  made  public  addresses;  thousands 


182  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

hastened  to  join  their  ranks,  and  vendite  were  established 
everywhere.  Social  barriers  were  broken  down ;  men 
hitherto  divided  by  impassable  chasms  exchanged  grips 
and  watchwords.  Even  the  Church  seemed  to  pardon  and 
accept  what  it  had  cursed  so  recently.  A  celebration 
was  granted  the  Good  Cousins ;  and  when  they  had  filled  a 
church  a  priest  blessed  them,  while  other  priests  joined 
the  procession,  wearing  rosaries  and  poniards,  and  carry- 
ing tricolored  banners. 

During  the  summer  a  much  more  orderly  condition 
than  had  existed  for  a  long  time  was  maintained  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples ;  the  credit  of  this  was  accorded  to 
the  Carbonari,  whose  customs  also  changed  the  appear- 
ance of  the  people.  Beards  and  hair  seemed  greatly  to 
thrive  under  the  summer  sun,  and  the  barbers  were  left 
without  an  occupation.  In  point  of  fact,  the  various 
parties,  the  king  and  viceroy,  the  Bourbonists  and  Repub- 
licans, were  no  more  harmonious  in  feeling  than  formerly, 
but  each  deemed  it  prudent  to  be  quiet  and  await 
events. 

The  first  constitutional  Parliament  was  opened  on 
October  1,  in  the  church  of  Santo  Spirito ;  and  it  takes 
on  vast  proportions  when  we  reflect  that  it  was  the  first 
representative  body  of  constitutionally  elected  Italians 
that  met  in  this  century,  which  has  since  brought  so 
many  changes  to  all  Italy.  But  if  we  look  for  any  great 
results  from  the  deliberations  of  these  men,  we  shall  be 
disappointed.  They  were  like  children  who  had  not 
learned  their  letters,  but  were  still  trying  to  read ;  they 
passed  their  days  in  inconsequential  arguments  for  and 
against  everything  that  was  proposed  for  their  consid- 
eration. 

Meantime  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  angry  at  the  exist- 
ing conditions  in  Naples,  met  and  consulted  each  other 
at  Troppau,  where  Metternich  was  the  ruling  spirit,  and 


FERDINAND  I.  183 

decided  to  ask  Ferdinand  to  join  them  at  Laybach.  It 
is  said  that  Ferdinand  had  begged  this  invitation,  and  it 
is  certain  that  he  had  written  Metternich  that  he  desired 
to  leave  Naples;  he  also  besought  the  interference  of 
Austria  to  restore  him  to  the  throne  and  re-establish  his 
despotism.  The  Parliament  consented  to  the  king's  jour- 
ney to  Laybach,  stipulating  only  that  before  his  departure 
he  should  renew  his  oath  to  the  Constitution.  This  he 
did  in  writing,  and  volunteered  a  promise  that  in  case  the 
other  monarchs  would  not  consent  to  the  wishes  of  the 
Neapolitans,  he  would  return  to  make  common  cause  with 
them.  The  king  sailed  on  December  14,  with  the  Car- 
bonari ribbons  fluttering  on  his  cowardly  breast. 

The  Laybach  conference  resulted  as  might  have  been 
foretold  by  any  statesman.  The  Austrian  army  entered 
Naples  by  the  Capuan  Gate,  March  23,  1821,  and  thou- 
sands of  men  were  hastening  to  be  rid  of  the  long  hair 
and  beards  of  the  Carbonari ;  the  barbers  alone  profited 
by  the  success  of  Ferdinand  and  Metternich.  They  had 
triumphed  over  many  thousands  of  Neapolitans,  who 
had  a  dim  perception  of  the  liberty  they  ought  to  enjoy, 
and  were  groping  like  blind  men  after  the  means  for 
securing  it.  Ferdinand  could  not  properly  estimate  the 
subjects  he  had  so  long  oppressed,  but  Metternich  should 
have  known  that  a  new  government  for  Italy  could  not  be 
long  deferred.  But  even  Metternich  failed  to  perceive 
the  full  significance  of  what  had  happened.  When  leav- 
ing Laybach  he  carelessly  wrote:  "While  military  opera- 
tions are  going  on  a  minister  takes  his  holidays.  The 
Neapolitan  war  gave  me  eight  days ;  the  Piedmontese  only 
four.  Everybody  must  acknowledge  that  no  time  has 
been  lost. "  He  had  forgotten  that  although  "  the  mills 
of  the  gods  grind  slowly,"  when  once  in  motion  they  do 
not  cease  to  grind. 

After  the  Austrian   occupation  of  Naples,    Ferdinand 


184  NAPLES  ANp  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

remained  at  Florence,  and  consulted  Prince  Canosa  on 
the  policy  now  to  be  followed.  The  real  conflict  had  not 
been  between  the  Neapolitans  and  their  actual  oppressors ; 
it  had  been  the  conflict  of  the  awakening  desire  for  free- 
dom with  European  autocracy,  as  represented  at  the  Con- 
gress of  Laybach.  As  yet  the  time  was  not  ripe;  the  new 
thought  was  not  strong  enough  to  cope  with  the  old.  The 
revolution  of  the  Carbonari  would  have  failed  had  their 
leaders  been  a  hundred  fold  greater  and  better  than  they 
were.  Having  been  overpowered,  they  must  be  punished 
and  made  an  example  to  intimidate  all  men  who  dared  to 
dream  of  freedom. 

The  sovereigns  at  the  Congress  had  advised  a  firm  but 
clement  treatment,  which  seems  like  a  satire  on  their  part 
if  they  understood  the  nature  of  the  beast,  Ferdinand, 
while  the  mention  of  mercy  to  Canosa  was  sufficient  to 
render  him  furious;  he  considered  it  a  privilege  to  be 
the  instrument  of  wrath,  and  was  only  satisfied  by  its 
extremest  indulgence.  Every  promise  and  treaty  that 
Ferdinand  had  made  were  broken,  and  all  men  who  had 
been  suspected  of  a  wish  for  a  change  of  government  since 
1793  were  proscribed.  The  leaders  of  the  revolt  who 
had  been  honored  in  the  previous  July  by  Ferdinand  and 
the  Duke  of  Calabria  were  now  denounced  as  traitors; 
no  assembly  of  any  kind  was  permitted,  even  the  educa- 
tional institutions  being  closed.  All  imaginable  horrors 
ensued ;  the  low  creatures  who  were  base  enough  to  turn 
against  their  late  confederates  were  made  judges;  the 
accused  were  not  permitted  to  face  their  accusers;  sen- 
tences were  pronounced  by  a  single  judge,  and  no  appeal 
allowed ;  spies  were  everywhere ;  search  was  made  without 
warrant,  and  even  the  secrets  of  the  confessional  were 
divulged ;  the  bells  tolled  for  executions  without  ceasing, 
and  public  scourging  was  revived  by  Canosa.  This  frusta 
had  been  so  long  disused  that  the  oldest  living  men  had 


FERDINAND  I.  185 

forgotten  it,  and  the  young  had  not  heard  of  it.     Imagine 
the  effect  of  a  scene  which  Colletta  thus  describes :  — 

"  At  midday,  in  the  populous  Via  di  Toledo,  a  large  detach- 
ment of  German  soldiers  were  seen,  drawn  up  in  military  array ; 
next  to  them  stood  the  assistant  of  the  executioner,  who  at 
intervals  blew  a  trumpet,  and  a  little  behind  him  more  Ger- 
mans and  several  officers  of  police,  who  surrounded  a  man 
naked  from  the  waist  upwards,  his  feet  bare,  his  wrists  tightly 
bound,  and  with  all  the  badges  of  the  Carbonari  hung  round  his 
neck ;  he  wore  a  tricolored  cap,  on  which  was  inscribed  in  large 
letters  '  Carbonaro.'  This  unhappy  man  was  mounted  on  an 
ass,  and  followed  by  the  executioner,  who,  at  every  blast  of  the 
trumpet,  scourged  his  shoulders  with  a  whip  made  of  ropes  and 
nails,  until  his  flesh  was  stained  with  his  blood,  and  his  agony 
was  shown  by  his  pallor,  while  his  head  sank  on  his  breast. 
The  mob  followed  this  procession  in  silent  horror.  Respectable 
citizens  fled,  or  prudently  concealed  their  pity  and  disgust.  If 
any  asked  the  meaning  of  the  punishment,  they  were  told  the 
person  flogged  was  a  Carbonaro,  a  gentleman  from  the  prov- 
inces (and  a  gentleman  he  appeared  to  be  both  in  face  and 
person),  who,  after  being  scourged,  was  to  suffer  the  penalty  of 
the  galleys  for  fifteen  years ;  and  this  not  by  the  sentence  of  a 
magistrate,  but  by  the  order  of  the  Prince  of  Canosa,  minister 
of  police,  who  had  just  arrived  in  the  city." 

On  the  two  following  days  other  scourgings  occurred, 
and  even  the  brutal  Austrian  soldiers  stayed  away  from 
these  spectacles.  All  over  the  kingdom  the  reign  of  terror 
was  fully  established;  and  the  Austrian  officers,  being 
suspicious  of  all  Neapolitans,  so  filled  the  prisons  that  the 
speediest  processes  for  executions  were  devised  in  order 
to  make  room  for  new  victims.  At  first  the  prisoners 
were  from  the  lower  classes ;  but  when  Canosa  asked  Fer- 
dinand if  he  could  punish  without  restriction,  the  king 
answered  in  one  word,  "Punish."  General  Colletta  and 
many  other  prominent  officials  were  sent  to  Austrian 


186  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

prisons;  men  who  were  innocent  of  any  political  action 
feared  to  remain  at  home,  so  unjust  were  the  punish- 
ments, and  feared  to  flee  as  that  would  expose  their 
families  to  untold  persecution.  Violent  measures  were 
instituted  against  books  which  inculcated  a  love  of  free- 
dom, and  severe  punishments  were  inflicted  upon  those 
who  possessed  them.  Many  of  these  were  secretly  de- 
stroyed, while  others  were  carried  to  the  Piazza  Medina 
to  be  burned,  and  a  heavy  duty  was  put  on  foreign 
publications. 

Relying  upon  the  protection  of  the  Austrian  soldiers, 
Ferdinand  returned  to  Naples.  His  entrance  was  cele- 
brated with  magnificence,  and  flattering  addresses  were 
made  to  him  by  those  who  feared  to  do  otherwise.  We 
can  but  think  that  he  realized  that  those  who  flattered 
would  gladly  have  stabbed  him;  ever  after  this  day  he 
used  every  possible  precaution  to  protect  himself  from 
violence.  He  at  once  gave  the  care  of  the  public  educa- 
tion into  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits,  and  was  most  puncti- 
lious in  his  religious  observances.  He  made  a  present  of 
200,000  ducats  to  the  commander  of  the  Austrian  forces, 
but  showed  no  mercy  to  any  Neapolitans,  unless  the  occa- 
sional change  of  the  death  sentence  to  the  living  death  of 
the  galleys  could  be  called  merciful. 

On  the  name-day  of  the  king,  May  30,  he  issued  a  gen- 
eral pardon  to  all  his  subjects  except  the  soldiers  and 
Carbonari  who  had  been  engaged  in  the  late  revolution ; 
these  were  seized  in  a  day,  and  the  so-called  "  Monteforte 
trial  "  begun.  Its  details  cannot  be  given  here.  It  lasted 
three  months,  and  resulted  in  most  cruel  punishments  to 
those  Italians  who  had  made  the  first  organized  struggle 
for  liberty.  The  king  passed  the  short  remnant  of  his 
days  in  fear  for  his  life,  torturing  his  people  by  his 
tyranny,  and  daily  adding  to  his  infamy.  Thayer  thus 
describes  his  condition:  — 


FRANCIS  I.  187 

"  Ferdinand  passed  the  later  years  of  his  infamous  reign  as 
if  repudiated  by  the  God  and  saints  to  whom  he  built  churches, 
and  as  if  even  Orcus  itself  loathed  to  receive  him.  Despised 
by  his  parasites  and  by  the  princes  whom  he  pompously  enter- 
tained, and  hated  by  his  subjects,  he  strove  to  banish  his  ter- 
rors of  death  by  the  follies  of  the  buffoon,  by  the  antics  of  his 
pet  bears,  and  by  the  droning  of  his  priests.  Such  was  the 
king,  and  such  the  government,  that  the  Allied  Powers  of 
Europe — Austria,  Prussia,  Russia,  France,  and  England  — 
imposed  on  Naples  during  the  fifth  lustre  of  the  nineteenth 
century." 

On  the  morning  of  Jan.  4,  1825,  the  king  was  found 
dead,  the  condition  of  his  bed  and  the  appearance  of  his 
body  showing  that  the  death  struggle  had  been  fierce  and 
long.  At  first  the  people  could  not  believe  that  such  good 
news  could  be  true,  and  many  so  manifested  their  joy 
that  they  were  arrested  and  punished  as  promptly  as  the 
new  king  was  proclaimed. 

When  the  length  of  Ferdinand's  reign  is  considered, 
the  public  works  which  are  associated  with  it  are  utterly 
insignificant.  He  gave  the  name  Museo  Reale  Borbonico 
to  a  museum  already  established,  and  built  the  uninter- 
esting church  of  S.  Francesco  di  Paola.  The  Piazza  del 
Plebiscito  was  constructed  during  his  reign;  and  his 
equestrian  statue  erected  there  —  the  horse  by  Canova 
and  the  rider  by  Call  —  serves  to  remind  the  present 
generation  of  the  tyranny  from  which  it  has  escaped. 
Many  streets  and  roads  were  laid  out  and  improved  be- 
tween 1759  and  1825;  but  it  is  not  possible  to  say  pre- 
cisely what  was  due  to  each  of  the  sovereigns  and  regents 
who  were  in  authority  during  those  sixty-six  weary  years. 

There  was  little  to  be  hoped  from  the  reign  of  Francis 
I.,  who  was  already  well  known  to  the  Neapolitans.  He 
was  more  cunning  and  cruel  than  his  father,  if  that  were 
possible,  and  his  reign  of  five  years  may  be  dismissed  in 


188  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

a  paragraph.  He  left  the  kingdom  in  a  worse  state  than 
he  found  it.  The  people,  sunk  in  poverty  and  supersti- 
tion, lived  in  dread  of  the  scaffold  and  the  foreign  sol- 
diers, while  the  aristocracy  pursued  a  life  of  vice  and 
pleasure.  There  is  a  certain  satisfaction  in  knowing  that 
this  king  was  not  happy  during  an  hour  of  his  reign. 
He  sufficiently  appreciated  his  treachery  to  the  Liberals 
to  inspire  him  with  an  abject  fear  of  their  revenge.  He 
dared  not  pass  through  the  streets  until  assured  of  safety 
by  the  minister  of  police,  and  he  so  dreaded  poison  that 
he  would  eat  no  food  unless  prepared  and  tasted  in  his 
presence  by  Catherine  de  Siinone,  a  low  chambermaid. 

The  Porto  Militare  was  begun  by  Francis  in  1826,  but 
has  been  so  much  enlarged  and  improved  that  it  can  now 
by  no  means  be  considered  a  monument  to  his  reign. 

Politically,  the  Neapolitan  kingdom  was  a  dependant 
of  Austria,  and  year  after  year  incurred  an  enormous 
debt  for  the  support  of  the  army  of  its  ruler.  In  1827 
this  debt  had  reached  the  sum  of  74,000,000  ducats.  As 
time  brought  still  greater  burdens  and  miseries  to  the 
Liberals,  and  their  want  of  union  and  sufficient  organiza- 
tion restricted  them  as  with  an  iron  hand,  their  discontent 
and  determination  also  increased.  Their  best  men  were 
acquiring  greater  wisdom,  and  all  were  gaining  in  energy, 
while  awaiting  a  new  turn  of  the  wheel  of  fate,  which 
should  bring  the  occasion  for  the  conflict  which  must 
come  between  the  Italians  and  the  tyrants. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FERDINAND  II.,  FRANCIS  II.,  GARIBALDI,  VICTOR  EMMANUEL  II. , 
AND   HUMBERT   I. 

1830-1894. 

IT  was  natural  that  each  new  king  should  be  welcomed 
by  a  people  who  constantly  hoped  for  a  better  govern- 
ment, and  Ferdinand  II.  was  received  with  enthusiasm. 
He  was  young,  and  they  believed  him  to  be  of  a  kindly 
nature;  at  least  he  could  assume  that  bearing.  He  dis- 
missed the  unworthy  creatures  who  had  surrounded  his 
father,  and  abolished  certain  of  his  extravagant  customs ; 
he  permitted  the  soldiers  to  wear  moustaches ;  he  remitted 
the  poll-tax,  and  instituted  other  reforms,  which  so 
commended  him  to  his  people  that  they  called  him  "  the 
new  Titus." 

The  Liberals  so  rejoiced  in  what  they  believed  him  to 
be  that  they  even  proposed  that  he  should  join  them,  and 
become  the  sovereign  of  all  Italy.  To  this  he  replied 
that  it  was  impossible,  as  he  "should  not  know  what  to 
do  with  the  Pope." 

But  alas !  the  veil  of  couleur  de  rose  in  which  he  had 
enfolded  himself  soon  dropped  off,  and  it  was  seen  that 
he  cared  for  no  reform  that  did  not  increase  his  power 
and  prestige.  He  remodelled  the  army,  and  appointed 
many  new  officers.  He  made  the  memory  of  Ignatius 
Loyola  a  field-marshal,  and  paid  the  salary  of  the  posi- 
tion to  the  Jesuits.  He  selected  despicable  men  for 


190  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

his  advisers.  His  confessor,  Monsignor  Cocle,  used  his 
office  for  his  own  ends,  and  endeavored  to  control  the 
king,  as  did  Delcarretto,  the  minister  of  police.  By 
flattery  and  by  indulging  the  worst  traits  of  Ferdinand's 
nature,  each  one  succeeded  in  turn.  Offices  were  openly 
bought  and  sold,  and  all  departments  of  the  public  service 
were  full  of  corruption.  Delcarretto  made  his  son  of  ten 
years  a  bank  treasurer  with  a  salary  of  6,000  ducats; 
and  when  these  abuses  were  reported  to  the  king,  he 
seemed  to  be  simply  amused  by  them. 

At  the  same  time  he  displayed  great  anxiety  for  the 
public  morals.  He  published  severe  edicts  against 
immoral  women,  apparently  that  they  might  pay  enormous 
bribes  to  be  let  alone.  He  prescribed  unbecoming  cos- 
tumes for  the  ballet-dancers,  in  order  to  make  them  less 
attractive  and  dangerous  than  they  had  sometimes  proved 
to  the  young  Neapolitans.  His  own  manners  were 
extremely  rude.  He  is  said  to  have  pulled  a  stool  away 
just  as  the  queen  was  about  to  sit  on  it,  and  to  have 
laughed  immoderately  when  she  fell  to  the  floor.  She 
exclaimed,  "  I  thought  I  had  married  a  king,  not  a  lazza- 
rone."  He  amused  himself  in  the  most  undignified  ways, 
frequently  caning  the  legs  of  an  attendant  in  order  to  see 
him  hop  about  in  pain. 

When  the  Liberals  rightly  understood  the  king's  char- 
acter, many  conspiracies  were  formed,  even  that  of  killing 
him ;  but  there  was  always  a  traitor  who  disclosed  these 
plots,  and  the  indescribably  filthy  and  cruelly  managed 
prisons  were  crowded  with  those  who  were  simply  suspects, 
as  well  as  those  known  to  be  plotters.  In  a  word,  the 
confessor  and  the  police  director  ruled  the  king,  and  thus 
ruled  the  kingdom.  But  prison  bars  could  not  fetter 
thought  nor  daunt  the  free-thinkers ;  the  principles  which 
Joseph  Mazzini  had  formulated  in  his  cell  at  Savona,  and 
to  which  he  had  given  life  in  the  Society  of  Young  Italy 


FERDINAND  II.  191 

—  Italia  Giovine  —  although  slow  in  their  effect,  espe- 
cially on  the  debased  Neapolitans,  were  still  ruling  the 
hearts  and  shaping  the  lives  of  thousands;  and  by  the 
following  oath  the  members  of  this  society  swore  to 
further  its  aims :  — 

"  In  the  name  of  God  and  of  Italy ;  in  the  name  of  all  the 
martyrs  of  the  holy  Italian  cause  who  have  fallen  beneath 
foreign  and  domestic  tyranny ;  by  the  duties  which  bind  me 
to  the  land  wherein  God  has  placed  me,  and  to  the  brothers 
whom  God  has  given  me  ;  by  the  love  —  innate  in  all  men  —  I 
bear  to  the  country  that  gave  my  mother  birth,  and  will  be  the 
home  of  my  children ;  by  the  hatred  —  innate  in  all  men  — 
I  bear  to  evil,  injustice,  usurpation,  and  arbitrary  rule  ;  by  the 
blush  that  rises  to  my  brow  when  I  stand  before  the  citizens  of 
other  lands,  to  know  that  I  have  no  rights  of  citizenship,  no 
country,  and  no  national  flag ;  by  the  aspiration  that  thrills  my 
soul  towards  that  liberty  for  which  it  was  created,  and  is  impo- 
tent to  exert,  —  towards  the  good  it  was  created  to  strive  after, 
and  is  impotent  to  achieve  in  the  silence  and  isolation  of 
slavery  ;  by  the  memory  of  our  former  greatness,  and  the  sense 
of  our  present  degradation ;  by  the  tears  of  Italian  mothers 
for  their  sons  dead  on  the  scaffold,  in  prison,  or  in  exile ;  by 
the  sufferings  of  the  millions,  etc." 

By  all  these  sacred  considerations  the  members  of  Young 
Italy  swore  to  keep  its  secrets  and  obey  its  officers. 

Mazzini  was  a  Carbonaro ;  but  his  broad  views  impelled 
him  to  formulate  a  creed  looking  to  the  union  of  all  Italy. 
Imprisoned,  he  had  time  for  reflection;  exiled  in  London, 
he  led  a  life  of  such  untiring  and  ceaseless  activity  as  few 
men  have  passed.  Thayer  well  summarizes  his  work  and 
character  when  he  says :  — 

"  Proscribed  in  Piedmont,  expelled  from  Switzerland,  denied 
lodging  in  France,  he  took  refuge  in  London,  there  to  direct, 
amid  poverty  and  heartache,  the  whole  vast  scheme  of  plots. 
His  bread  he  earned  by  writing  critical  and  literary  essays  for 


192  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

the  English  reviews,  —  he  quickly  mastered  the  English  lan- 
guage so  as  to  use  it  with  remarkable  vigor,  —  and  all  his 
leisure  he  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  political  tracts,  and  to 
correspondence  with  numberless  confederates.  He  watched 
the  symptoms  of  every  port  of  Italy ;  he  studied  the  map  and 
laid  out  campaigns ;  he  shipped  arms  and  munition  to  various 
points ;  he  indited  proclamations,  concerted  signals,  enrolled 
volunteers,  instigated,  encouraged,  and  counselled.  He  was 
the  consulting  physician  for"  all  the  revolutionary  practitioners 
of  Europe.  .  .  .  The  best  proof  of  his  power  lies  in  the  anxiety 
he  caused  monarchs  and  cabinets,  and  the  precautions  they 
took  to  guard  against  him.  Their  spies  lurked  in  his  shadow ; 
they  even  induced  the  British  postmaster-general  to  open  his 
letters,  —  a  baseness  which  prevents  the  name  of  Graham  from 
being  forgotten ;  they  sowed  reports  reeking  with  terrible  insin- 
uations against  his  character  and  methods.  .  .  .  Mazzini  denied 
the  charge  that  he  approved  or  condoned  political  assassina- 
tion, although  he  admitted  that  he  had  given  money  and  a 
dagger  to  a  young  fanatic,  Gallenga,  who  had  vowed  to  kill 
Charles  Albert.  In  friendly  intercourse  he  was  so  gentle,  so 
unselfish,  so  insistent  in  matters  spiritual,  that  the  few  persons 
who  knew  him  well,  could  not  believe  that  he  would  descend  to 
criminal  methods  in  order  to  compass  his  reforms,  which  were 
essentially  moral. 

"  Mazzini  and  Metternich !  For  nearly  twenty  years  they 
were  the  antipodes  of  European  politics.  One,  in  his  London 
garret,  poor,  despised,  yet  indomitable  and  sleepless,  sending  his 
influence  like  an  electric  current  through  all  barriers  to  revivify 
the  heart  of  Italy  and  of  Liberal  Europe ;  the  other  in  his 
Vienna  palace,  haughty,  famous,  equally  alert  and  cunning, 
with  all  material  and  hierarchical  powers  to  aid  him,  shedding 
over  Italy  and  over  Europe  his  upas-doctrines  of  torpor  and 
decay !  .  .  .  Then,  as  so  often  before  in  human  history,  the 
Champion  of  the  Past,  —  arrogant,  materialist,  and  self-satis- 
fied, but  waning,  —  had  a  palace  to  his  dwelling,  while  the 
Apostle  of  the  Future  found  only  a  cheap  lodging  and  an 
exile's  welcome  in  a  foreign  land." 


FERDINAND  II.  193 

In  1836  the  cholera  broke  out  in  the  Neapolitan  king- 
dom, and  raged  with  great  violence  during  the  following 
year.  In  Naples  alone,  13,800  perished  in  five  months. 
The  fear  of  it  destroyed  all  human  feeling.  The  dearest 
and  nearest  deserted  each  other  when  attacked  by  the 
plague ;  priests  no  longer  fulfilled  their  offices ;  the  poor 
stricken  wretches  suffered  their  agonies  and  died  alone ; 
corpses  remained  unburied  until  their  stench  warned 
men  of  the  danger  of  leaving  them  above  ground ;  ditches 
were  dug,  the  bodies  thrown  in,  and  quicklime  shovelled 
over  them.  The  silence  of  the  city  was  broken  only  by 
the  shrieks  of  agony,  the  rumble  of  the  death-carts,  and 
the  fall  of  the  bodies  thrown  out  to  them.  Many  men, 
mad  with  fear,  attempted  to  forget  all  these  horrors  in 
debauchery,  and  the  few  whose  nobility  of  character  led 
them  to  serve  their  fellows,  while  awaiting  their  own 
doom,  merit  remembrance  and  blessing  whenever  these 
frightful  days  are  recalled. 

Meantime  the  conduct  of  the  king  and  his  advisers  had 
destroyed  all  the  hopes  that  had  centred  in  him.  While 
mentally  more  vigorous  than  his  predecessors,  he  was 
equally  cruel  and  selfish,  and  it  was  plain  that  so  long  as 
the  autocrats  of  Europe  would  support  him,  he  would  rule 
by  corruption  and  barbarity  over  a  people  who  were 
regarded  as  the  veriest  ulcer  among  the  diseased  nations 
of  his  time. 

Ferdinand  affected  a  rigid  personal  morality,  and  ruled 
his  household  accordingly.  He  was  one  of  those  who 

"  Compound  for  sins  they  are  inclined  to, 
By  damning  those  they  have  no  mind  to." 

His  chief  sin  was  avarice.  He  hesitated  at  nothing 
that  could  increase  his  wealth ;  he  reduced  his  people  to 
the  lowest  depths  of  ignorance  rather  than  pay  for  an 
education  which  might  make  them  more  difficult  to  govern ; 

13 


194  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

and  the  censorship  of  the  press  in  the  hands  of  Delcar- 
retto  made  repression  easy  and  complete. 

In  June,  1844,  the  plot  of  the  Bandiera  was  revealed  to 
the  Neapolitan  government  through  the  despicable  act  of 
Sir  James  Graham,  who  opened  Mazzini's  letters,  betrayed 
their  contents,  and  added  to  his  cowardly  conduct  by 
reclosing  the  letters  and  sending  them  to  Mazzini.  Thus, 
when  the  conspirators  landed  in  Calabria,  they  were  met 
by  a  spy  sent  for  that  purpose,  who  betrayed  them  to  the 
police. 

But  from  the  nine  murdered  bodies  crowded  into  a 
single  grave,  and  the  eight  living  men  cast  into  a  foul 
dungeon  to  rot  alive,  an  influence  went  forth  through  all 
Italy  such  as  tyrants  cannot  afford  to  ignore.  The  story 
of  their  heroism,  as  they  went  to  their  execution 

singing,  — 

"  Chi  per  la  patria  muore, 

Ha  gia  vissuto  assai ;  " 
"  He  who  for  his  country  dies, 
Has  already  lived  long  enough ; " 

and  that  of  the  undaunted  courage  of  Lupatelli,  —  who 
found  himself  standing  alone  above  the  corpses  of  his 
companions  when  the  smoke  of  the  first  volley  cleared 
away,  and  in  a  ringing  voice  called  out,  "Fire  again!" 
—  was  repeated  in  undertones  from  one  man  to  another 
from  the  Bay  of  Naples  to  the  Alps,  and  from  the  east  to 
the  west  of  all  Italy.  These  tales  aroused  such  a  flame 
of  enthusiasm  for  the  cause  in  which  these  men  had  died 
as  no  Bourbon  and  Metternich  combined  could  ever 
extinguish. 

A  new  influence  which  was  quietly  permeating  all 
Italy  emanated  from  the  writings  of  Mazzini,  Gioberti, 
Balbo,  D'Azelio,  and  Galeotti,  which  by  one  method  and 
another  made  their  way  past  all  censors  and  inspectors, 
and  reached  the  hands  of  the  people,  who  were  thus 


FERDINAND  II.  195 

cheered  and  encouraged  in  their  determination  to  resist 
their  tyrants. 

In  June,  1846,  when  Pius  IX.  came  to  the  papal  throne, 
he  declared  a  general  amnesty  for  all  political  offenders. 
Ferdinand  did  not  permit  the  publication  of  this  amnesty 
in  Naples.  He  allowed  no  honor  to  be  shown  to  Pius  by 
his  people ;  he  forbade  the  sale  of  prints  or  busts  of  the 
Pope,  and  printed  eulogies  of  Pius  had  to  be  smuggled 
across  the  frontiers  and  read  in  secrecy.  Reverently  to 
name  the  Vicegerent  of  Heaven  exposed  a  Neapolitan  to 
suspicion  and  arrest. 

In  1847  events  marched  rapidly  all  over  Italy,  and  the 
King  of  Naples  suffered  agonies  of  apprehension ;  and  in 
spite  of  all  that  he  could  do,  —  including  the  bombard- 
ments which  gave  him  his  title  of  King  Bomba,  — he  was 
compelled,  in  1848,  to  give  the  Neapolitans  a  Constitu- 
tion. Ferdinand  acted  his  part  well,  always  intending 
to  betray  his  people  at  the  earliest  opportunity;  and 
those  who  had  scarcely  ceased  cursing  him  now  shouted 
his  praises  vehemently.  On  February  24,  in  the  church 
of  S.  Francesco  di  Paola,  the  king  swore  to  defend  the 
Constitution,  which  guaranteed  his  people  freedom  of  the 
press,  trial  by  jury,  ministerial  responsibility,  parliamen- 
tary representation  and  institutions.  The  young  men 
applauded  Bomba,  but  the  older  men  remembered  that 
this  same  solemn  ceremony  and  sacred  oath  had  been 
turned  into  a  farce  by  the  grandfather  of  this  Ferdinand. 

But  the  Neapolitans  did  not  know  how  to  be  freemen 
and  republicans,  and  all  sorts  of  puerile  dissatisfactions 
arose  to  embarrass  those  who  might  have  guided  them  to 
better  things.  The  Constitution  seemed  to  mean  Heaven 
to  the  body  of  the  people ;  and  when  this  blessing  had  been 
given  them,  and  sworn  to  by  the  king,  they  looked  for  such 
immediate  results  as  should  feed  the  hungry,  clothe  the 
naked,  abolish  taxes,  increase  trade,  and  bring  universal 


196  NAPLES  AND   ITS  ENVIRONS. 

prosperity.  The  confusion  that  reigned  was  epitomized  in 
a  sentence  by  Charles  Poerio,  when  he  resigned  from  the 
cabinet.  "  Among  the  people  which  shouts,  the  king  who 
deceives,  and  the  ministers  who  do  not  know  what  they 
are  doing,  there  is  no  place  for  an  honest  man. " 

We  cannot  trace  the  story  of  these  days  step  by  step ; 
but  the  overpowering  interest  of  this  period,  all  over 
Italy,  cannot  be  overestimated.  The  whole  Neapolitan 
Peninsula  was  in  a  state  of  exaltation  and  hope,  never 
before  known.  The  northern  Italians  and  the  Venetians 
were  now  one  with  the  Neapolitans  in  their  determination 
to  expel  the  Austrians  from  their  country;  and  a  beautiful 
vision  of  Italy,  free  and  united,  rose  before  all  patriotic 
eyes.  Alas  that  it  was  but  a  mirage,  —  albeit  a  pro- 
phetic one, — to  become  reality  only  after  long  years  of 
brave  endurance  and  patriotic  heroism. 

Ferdinand  could  not  ignore  the  War  of  Independence, 
and  on  April  7  he  issued  a  manifesto  declaring  his  deter- 
mination to  work  with  his  might  for  the  liberation  of 
Italy.  He  called  himself  Italiano  e  soldato,  —  an  Italian 
and  a  soldier,  —  and  despatched  a  regiment  to  join  the 
Tuscans,  while  he  secretly  did  everything  in  his  power  to 
frustrate  the  plans  of  the  patriots.  He  constantly  found 
means  to  delay  the  departure  of  troops,  and  in  the  end 
sent  less  than  a  third  of  the  40,000  he  had  promised. 

Meantime  the  Neapolitan  elections  were  held,  and  Par- 
liament was  to  be  opened  on  May  15.  An  uneasy  feeling 
prevailed  among  all  classes.  The  Liberals  did  not  trust 
the  king,  and  he  was  exulting  in  the  thought  that  his  day 
of  triumph  was  not  far  distant.  His  agents  lost  no  oppor- 
tunity to  arouse  the  suspicions  and  passions  of  the  people. 
The  soldiers  were  told  that  a  constitutional  government 
should  have  no  need  of  an  army,  while  the  press  so  abused 
the  soldiers  that  they  were  frequently  insulted,  and  an 
absolute  feud  was  created  between  the  army  and  the 


FERDINAND  IL  197 

people.  Other  agents  of  Bomba  told  the  people  that  their 
religion  was  in  danger,  since  the  Liberals  were  as  inimical 
to  the  Pope  and  the  Church  as  to  the  king.  On  the  day  of 
S.  Januarius  the  miracle  did  not  take  place  as  usual ;  only 
after  a  long  delay  and  great  anxiety  was  this  favor  of 
Heaven  vouchsafed.  Thus,  as  May  15  approached,  great 
excitement  prevailed  in  all  classes,  and  the  few  true 
patriots  who  had  hoped  for  a  better  government  suffered 
untold  anxieties.  Difficulties  arose  about  the  form  of 
oath  to  be  taken ;  but  finally,  late  on  the  evening  of  the 
14th,  Bomba  consented  that  the  Parliament  should  be 
opened  the  next  day,  and  the  oath  omitted  until  the 
united  Legislature  should  decide  upon  its  form. 

But  the  king  clandestinely  ordered  out  the  troops,  and 
his  agents  incited  the  people  to  construct  barricades ;  these 
were  soon  thrown  up  along  the  Toledo,  and  other  prepa- 
rations made  for  defence.  The  deputies  attempted  to 
quiet  the  people  with  the  news  that  the  king  had  granted 
their  request.  They  then  petitioned  the  king  to  withdraw 
the  troops,  but  he  replied  that  it  was  not  possible  so  long 
as  the  barricades  remained. 

In  the  morning  the  deputies  assembled  at  Mont-Oliveto, 
and  sent  a  proclamation  to  be  signed  by  the  king  accord- 
ing to  his  promise  of  the  preceding  evening.  Bomba 
had  again  changed  his  mind;  in  fact,  he  was  secretly 
preparing  to  leave  Naples.  Some  of  his  effects  were 
already  on  board  his  ships,  and  he  only  delayed  his 
departure  in  order  to  attend  a  Mass  to  the  Virgin. 

Suddenly  a  shot  was  heard  from  the  barricades,  which 
is  believed  to  have  been  fired  by  a  servant  of  Bomba's 
uncle ;  and  at  once  the  royal  guards  began  firing  on  the 
people.  The  national  guards  discharged  their  guns  in 
return,  and  a  battle  ensued  between  the  royal  and  national 
troops.  The  red  flag,  the  signal  of  war,  was  hoisted  on 
the  castles,  and  their  guns  fired  on  the  city.  The  contest 


198  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

soon  became  a  massacre,  in  which  old  and  young,  men, 
women,  and  children,  were  slaughtered  alike.  In  the 
palace  Bomba  suffered  the  keenest  alarm  until  assured  of 
the  success  of  his  schemes.  Then  his  courage  revived, 
and  when  the  ministers  begged  him  to  stop  the  carnage 
and  order  his  troops  to  their  quarters,  he  replied:  "The 
time  for  clemency  is  past,  and  the  people  must  now 
render  an  account  for  their  actions." 

The  troops  surrounded  the  palace  in  which  the  deputies 
were  assembled,  and  threatened  them  with  death,  in 
answer  to  which  they  sent  requests  for  the  cessation  of 
the  massacre  to  the  authorities  of  Naples  and  to  the 
French  admiral,  whose  ships  were  in  the  port.  At  even- 
ing a  message  from  the  king  desired  them  to  withdraw; 
this  they  refused  to  do  without  a  written  order,  after 
which  they  were  threatened  with  forcible  removal.  They 
then  drew  up  a  dignified  protest  against  the  monarch 
"  who  had  attacked  the  rights  of  the  elected  of  the  nation 
by  fire  and  sword,  had  stifled  liberty,  and  betrayed  the 
Constitution. " 

The  most  terrible  slaughter  continued.  Human  beings 
of  all  conditions  were  dropped  into  wells,  thrown  from 
windows,  and  stabbed  in  their  beds ;  many,  but  half  mur- 
dered, perished  in  their  burning  houses.  The  Palazzo 
Gravina  was  sacked  and  burned,  and  the  Lazzaroni  went 
from  house  to  house,  carrying  off  whatever  they  wished 
of  their  contents,  and  then  setting  them  on  fire.  A 
search  for  Saliceti  was  perseveringly  made,  the  assassins 
saying  that  they  had  promised  his  head  to  Bomba,  while 
members  of  the  national  guard  were  shot  in  the  fosse  of 
Castel  Nuovo.  From  the  moment  that  the  king  felt  him- 
self to  be  the  master,  he  devoted  his  energies  to  lopping 
off  every  offshoot  of  liberalism.  The  full  terrors  of  his 
vengeance  were  not  known  until  years  later,  when  Mr. 
Gladstone  called  this  period  of  Bourbon  government 


FERDINAND  II.  199 

"  the  negation  of  God. "     In  the  end  the  former  tyranny, 
with  all  its  worst  features,  was  re-established. 

A  second  election  took  place,  and  Parliament  met  only 
to  be  prorogued  without  results,  and  finally  adjourned  to 
February,  1849.  On  November  27,  the  king  and  royal 
family,  with  1,400  soldiers,  proceeded  to  Gaeta  to  wel- 
come Pius  IX.,  who  had  fled  from  Rome  after  desert- 
ing the  national  cause,  and  now  sought  protection  from 
Bomba,  who,  together  with  Cardinal  Antonelli,  completely 
ruled  his  Holiness.  A  week  later  Carlo  Poerio  wrote : 

"  Our  misery  has  reached  such  a  climax  that  it  is  enough  to 
drive  us  mad.  Every  faculty  of  the  soul  revolts  against  the 
ferocious  reactionary  movement,  the  more  disgraceful  from  its 
execrable  hypocrisy.  .  .  .  The  laws  have  ceased  to  exist ;  the 
statute  is  buried ;  a  licentious  soldiery  rules  over  everything, 
and  the  press  is  constantly  employed  to  asperse  honest  men. 
.  .  .  Another  night  of  St.  Bartholomew  is  threatened  to  all  who 
will  not  sell  body  and  soul.  We  deputies  are  resolved  to  die 
in  our  places  in  Parliament  rather  than  sacrifice  the  rights  of 
the  nation ;  our  last  cry  will  be  for  the  freedom  of  our  coun- 
try ;  our  blood  will  bear  fruit." 

These  conditions,  and  worse,  existed  until  the  people 
sank  into  an  apathy  induced  by  their  helpless  discourage- 
ment. After  the  Austrian  victory  at  Novara  in  March, 
1849,  Bomba  felt  himself  secure  in  his  place,  and  re- 
sumed the  infliction  of  such  cruelties  as  we  are  weary  of 
reciting.  The  true  story  of  the  barbarism  of  Bomba  and 
his  tools,  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
could  not  be  believed  was  it  not  attested  to  by  men 
whose  truth  cannot  be  doubted.  Fortunately,  many 
patriots  escaped  into  exile,  and  were  able  to  keep  the  desire 
and  determination  for  liberty  alive  in  the  hearts  of  the 
Neapolitans  until  a  leader,  or  rather  a  savior,  should 
arise  who  could  guide  them  to  freedom. 


200  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

It  is  a  curious  and  interesting  fact  that  the  battle  of 
Novara,  which  apparently  tightened  the  Austrian  fetters 
more  surely  than  ever  on  Italy,  should  also  have  conferred 
the  power  to  act  on  Victor  Emmanuel,  —  that  last  Duke  of 
Savoy,  who  came  to  the  throne  of  Sardinia  under  the 
shadow  of  a  great  humiliation,  but  was  destined  to  accom- 
plish a  glorious  work  for  his  country,  and  to  die  the  first 
king  of  United  Italy. 

It  has  been  related  that  as  Victor  Emmanuel  rode  from 
the  field  of  Novara,  defeated  and  followed  by  the  shat- 
tered remnants  of  his  regiments,  he  brandished  his 
sword  towards  the  Austrians,  and  with  a  deep  curse  cried 
out,  Ma  V Italia  sard  !  It  matters  little  whether  this  tale 
was  precisely  true  or  not,  since  we  now  know  the  strength 
of  his  determination  that  Italy  should  be.  From  that  very 
night,  when  his  father  in  his  royal  tent,  with  his  generals 
around  him,  presented  his  son  to  them,  and  said,  "  Gentle- 
men, behold  your  sovereign,"  the  thought  of  the  young 
Prince  never  wavered  from  his  one  aim,  which  was  only 
accomplished  twenty-two  years  later,  when  he  entered 
Rome  as  King.  When,  as  in  his  address  to  the  last 
Parliament  which  met  at  Florence,  he  could  say :  — 

"With  Rome  as  the  capital  of  Italy,  I  have  fulfilled  my 
promise,  and  crowned  the  enterprise  which,  three  and  twenty 
years  ago,  was  undertaken  by  my  illustrious  father.  My  heart, 
as  a  king  and  as  a  son,  is  filled  with  a  solemn  exultation  at  hav- 
ing to  salute  here,  for  the  first  time,  representatives  assembled 
from  all  parts  of  our  beloved  country,  and  at  being  able  to  say 
to  them,  Italy  is  free  and  united ;  henceforth  it  depends  upon 
us  alone  to  make  her  also  great  and  prosperous." 

We  return  to  Naples,  and  to  the  circumstances  which 
led  to  the  union  of  that  kingdom  with  the  government  of 
Sardinia  and  Central  Italy.  King  Bomba  survived  Novara 
ten  years,  and  died  in  1859.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 


FRANCIS  II.  AND  GARIBALDI.  201 

Francis  II.,  another  genuine  Bourbon.  To  him  Count 
Cavour  proposed  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance 
with  Piedmont;  this  the  king  declined,  adhering  to  the 
Austrian  alliance  with  the  obstinate  stupidity  of  his 
race. 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  part  which  Victor  Emmanuel  and 
Cavour  took  in  promoting  the  union  of  Naples  with  the 
rest  of  Italy  has  yet  been  fully  understood.  No  exact 
history  of  political  events  of  such  importance  is  likely  to 
be  written  in  the  century  in  which  they  occur.  There 
were  excellent  reasons  against  their  appearing  as  the 
chief  promoters  of  this  movement,  and  yet  they  must  have 
fully  sympathized  with  the  Sardinian  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  who  said  to  the  Neapolitan  Minister  of 
Finance,  "Either  you  or  I  must  go;  there  is  not  room 
for  both  of  us  in  Italy." 

But  let  the  interior  historical  truth  be  what  it  may,  it 
is  a  delight  to  re-read  the  story,  and  imagine  the  experi- 
ences of  those  days  when  Garibaldi  entered  Naples  trium- 
phantly and  put  Francis  II.  to  flight  before  the  forts  had 
been  surrendered  to  him  or  the  army  of  the  cowardly 
king  had  been  defeated.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this 
army  could  have  driven  Garibaldi  and  his  "  thousand  of 
Marsala"  into  the  sea;  but  without  encountering  an 
enemy  Garibaldi  reached  Naples,  and  on  September  7, 
1860,  drove  slowly  through  the  streets  in  an  open  carriage, 
passing  beneath  the  guns  of  the  Castel  Nuovo,  while  the 
gunners  awaited  the  order  to  fire  on  the  intruders,  —  an 
order  that  was  never  given.  Delightful  as  the  romance  of 
the  story  thus  related  is,  a  second  thought  proposes  several 
questions.  Would  Garibaldi  have  taken  such  foolhardy 
risks  had  he  not  known  that  the  Neapolitans  were  ready 
to  welcome  him,  that  the  king's  troops  were  at  Gaeta, 
and  that  Victor  Emmanuel  and  his  army  were  ready  to 
give  him  all  necessary  support? 


202  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

The  government  of  Naples  was  not  overcome ;  it  fell  to 
pieces  like  the  card  house  of  the  child :  it  had  no  supports. 
From  the  king  to  the  lowest  official  all  were  corrupt, 
demoralized;  and  the  people  were  too  degraded  to  have 
opinions  to  defend.  The  few  intelligent  Neapolitans 
were  but  too  anxious  that  their  peninsula  should  make  a 
part  of  the  New  Italy,  and  all  who  thought  at  all  believed 
that  submission  to  Garibaldi  was  the  first  step  towards 
being  ruled  by  Victor  Emmanuel.  All  this,  seen  from  to- 
day, does  not  lessen  the  heroism  of  Garibaldi  in  making 
his  attack ;  he  could  not  have  known  that  he  could  march 
from  Marsala  to  Naples  with  but  a  single  skirmish.  He 
could  neither  have  anticipated  nor  hoped  that  the  Swiss 
regiments  and  the  Neapolitan  soldiers  would  be  but  men 
of  straw  before  his  red-shirted  followers,  and  his  action 
was  that  of  a  brave  and  unselfish  patriot.  Conqueror  as 
he  was,  Garibaldi  might  have  followed  a  course  which 
would  have  brought  still  other  miseries  to  the  debased  and 
pitiable  Neapolitans.  A  less  loyal  and  honest  nature  than 
his  would  have  been  sorely  tempted  in  his  position. 
There  were  those,  among  whom  was  Mazzini,  who  wished 
him  to  declare  a  Republic  at  Naples,  —  an  act  which  could 
have  brought  no  benefits,  and  would  have  delayed  the 
unification  of  his  beloved  Italy. 

The  king  having  fled,  the  government  devolved  on 
Garibaldi,  whether  he  would  or  no.  He  declared  himself 
Dictator;  and  as  soon  as  this  was  known,  adventurers  and 
Red  Republicans  flocked  about  him  in  large  numbers. 
Great  as  had  been  the  misrule  of  Naples,  it  had  never  been 
more  deplorable  than  during  the  Dictatorship  of  Garibaldi, 
and  nothing  now  seems  more  absurd  than  his  demand  for 
a  continuance  in  office  for  two  years,  and  the  dismissal 
of  Count  Cavour  from  his  position  at  Turin.  The  wisdom 
of  Cavour  and  Victor  Emmanuel  brought  about  an  imme- 
diate convocation  of  Parliament,  and  a  vote  for  the 


VICTOR  EMMANUEL  II.  203 

annexation  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  the  Kingdom  of  United 
Italy  without  delay. 

By  the  time  that  this  was  accomplished  other  circum- 
stances had  arisen  which  made  it  impossible  for  Garibaldi, 
had  he  wished  it,  to  oppose  the  decisions  made  at  Turin. 
Francis  II. ,  after  taking  refuge  in  the  fortress  of  Gaeta, 
was  inspired  by  the  courage  of  his  young  queen  to  attempt 
resistance  to  Garibaldi.  His  troops  were  massed  at  Gaeta 
and  Capua ;  and  insufficient  as  their  action  was,  with  no 
competent  general  to  command  them,  they  were  yet  too 
formidable  a  foe  for  Garibaldi  to  overcome.  The  Neapol- 
itans afforded  him  no  support ;  his  curious  volunteer  army 
gradually  diminished  when  the  siege  of  Capua  gave  it 
real  work  to  do;  and  but  for  the  advance  of  the  Sar- 
dinian army,  the  Dictator's  position  would  soon  have 
been  hopeless. 

Three  weeks  after  Garibaldi  entered  Naples,  Ancona 
surrendered  to  the  army  of  Victor  Emmanuel.  The  king 
at  once  proceeded  to  that  city,  and  issued  a  proclamation 
to  the  people  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  informing  them  of  his 
immediate  approach.  Taking  command  of  his  troops, 
and  crossing  the  Tronto,  he  advanced  to  the  Bay  of 
Naples  with  no  other  hindrance  than  that  of  the  almost 
impassable  roads.  He  was  received  joyfully.  At  Teauo 
Garibaldi  met  him,  and  in  spite  of  the  embarrassments 
that  must  have  existed  for  both  of  them,  they  entered 
Naples  on  November  7,  and  drove  through  the  city,  side 
by  side,  in  an  open  carriage.  But  Garibaldi  well  knew 
that  the  enthusiasm  of  their  reception  was  awakened  by 
the  presence  of  the  king;  and  early  next  morning  he 
quietly  sailed  for  Caprera,  his  island  home,  asking  only 
that  the  officers  of  his  forces  should  have  the  same  rank 
in  the  royal  army  that  they  had  held  in  his.  For  himself 
he  refused  the  honors  which  the  king  would  gladly  have 
conferred  on  him. 


204  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Victor  Emmanuel  left  Naples  before  the  New  Year. 
The  fall  of  Gaeta  and  the  surrender  of  the  other  fortresses 
completed  the  annexation  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  the  Italian 
Monarchy,  and  from  that  time  there  has  been  but  one 
sovereign  and  one  court  in  all  Italy.  Thus  has  the  desire 
of  Manzoni  been  fulfilled :  — 

"  No  more  let  place  be  found  where  barriers  rise  to  sever 
Italian  from  Italian  soil  henceforth  forever  I  " 

With  all  that  has  been  accomplished  for  Italy  under  the 
determined  struggles  and  the  reign  of  the  Re  galantuomo, 
—  the  honest  king,  —  as  well  as  during  the  wise  and 
equable  rule  of  Humbert  I.,  there  are  still  great  needs  in 
the  Neapolitan  peninsula,  as  is  patent  to  the  most  super- 
ficial observer.  But  when  we  remember  that  here  in 
1863  ninety  per  cent  of  the  population  could  neither  read 
nor  write,  and  that  not  only  their  mental  but  also  their 
moral  intelligence  had  been  extinguished,  we  cannot 
wonder  that  thirty-one  years  have  not  brought  all  the 
desirable  changes,  —  we  may  rather  congratulate  the 
Neapolitans,  and  ourselves  be  grateful,  that  the  leaven  of 
Freedom  and  Unity  is  doing  its  work;  and  that  this  land 
of  beauty,  —  whose  spell  has  fascinated  all  who  have  come 
within  its  reach,  from  the  dawn  of  the  ages  until  now,  — 
having  attained  the  majority  of  its  independence,  is 
rapidly  gaining  the  stature  of  a  stalwart  manhood. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

NEAPOLITAN   LIFE. 

THE  beauty  of  Naples  and  its  immediate  surroundings 
is  best  appreciated  when  approaching  it  from  the 
sea.  As  one  passes  between  the  two  natural  guardians  of 
the  Bay  of  Naples,  —  the  islands  of  Capri  and  Ischia,  —  he 
sees  in  the  glorious  panorama  before  him  numerous  types 
of  the  works  of  God  and  man.  In  the  background  are 
distant  snowy  mountains,  while  near  at  hand  the  living 
volcano  towers  over  all.  The  blue  Mediterranean  is  the 
foreground  and  setting  of  the  beautiful  islands  and  the 
city  of  Parthenope ;  and  the  coast  line,  with  its  general 
effect  of  a  broad  and  sweeping  curve,  on  closer  examina- 
tion reveals  capes,  straits,  smaller  bays,  exquisite  islands, 
and  grand,  bold  promontories. 

In  the  middle  ground  is  the  great  city,  encircling  the 
base  of  Vesuvius  on  the  east  and  stretching  to  the  lovely 
Bay  of  Pozzuoli  on  the  west.  Beyond  Vesuvius,  farther  to 
the  east,  rises  the  promontory  proudly  bearing  Castellam- 
mare,  Vico,  and  Sorrento,  with  many  clustering  villages 
amid  its  orange  groves  and  vineyards,  all  guarded  by  the 
friendly,  verdant  Monte  Sant'  Angelo,  clothed  with  noble 
chestnut-trees,  while  below,  almost  completing  the  curve, 
the  Punta  di  Campanella  approaches  the  towering  preci- 
pices of  Capri. 

Do  not  hasten  from  this  point  of  vantage ;  drink  in  its 
beauty  and  leave  no  portion  of  it  unappreciated.  All  the 
calm  and  repose  that  can  be  gathered  from  it,  all  the 


206  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

impressions  of  the  grandeur  and  loveliness  of  nature,  of 
blue  sea  and  sky,  of  snowy  peak  and  purple  haze,  can 
scarcely  inspire  one  with  sufficient  equanimity  to  take  him 
patiently  through  the  yelling  rabble  which  welcomes  the 
stranger  to  this  city,  the  entrance  to  which  suggests  the 
thought  that  to  "  see  Naples  "  is  to  "  die  "  of  indignation 
and  disgust. 

But  if  you  can  possess,  your  soul  in  patience,  you  will 
soon  reflect  that,  together  with  its  natural  beauty,  the 
people  of  Naples  —  the  street-life  of  Naples,  in  fact  —  make 
its  chief  interest.  Modern  Naples  is  not  distinguished  by 
many  splendid  edifices,  and  few  remaining  monuments 
recall  the  part  the  older  Naples  played  in  mediaeval  history ; 
but,  as  a  great  hive  of  a  peculiar  race,  it  has  an  engrossing 
interest  for  one  who  feels  that  "  the  proper  study  of  man- 
kind is  man."  There  is  no  reserve  about  Naples ;  its  char- 
acteristics are  apparent  from  the  hour  one  enters  it,  and 
"  the  tide,  the  bustle,  the  activity,  thronging  the  streets 
as  't  were  a  festive  day,"  ever  stands  boldly  in  relief  and 
makes  its  impression,  however  often  one  may  visit  it. 

Naples  is  semi-Oriental,  as  would  naturally  result  from 
the  mingling  of  races  which  has  gone  to  make  up  the 
present  Neapolitan.  The  Marsii,  Samnites,  Lucanians, 
Arabians,  Greeks,  and  other  peoples  of  antiquity,  who  long 
ago  dwelt  here,  were  not  extinguished  by  Roman  conquest 
nor  by  the  dynasties  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  descendants 
of  these  ancient  races  mingled  their  blood  with  that  of 
Normans,  Suabians,  Proven9als,  and  Spaniards,  and  many 
Neapolitan  customs  may  easily  be  traced  to  an  Eastern 
origin.  But  the  dignified  seriousness  of  the  true  Oriental 
and  the  proud  reserve  of  the  Spaniard  have  here  taken  on 
an  elasticity  and  brightness  that  is  not  seen  in  more  East- 
ern cities,  and  certainly  not  in  those  of  the  North  and 
West.  Perhaps  it  may  be  said  that  Naples  has  no  distinct 
nationality ;  it  undoubtedly  is  a  rendezvous  for  all  nations, 


NEAPOLITAN  LITE.  207 

and  is  much  less  Italian  than  many  cities  of  Italy  ;  but  the 
love  of  the  Neapolitan  for  his  home  is  deeply  rooted  in  his 
nature,  and  no  skies  can  be  so  blue,  no  stars  so  bright,  no 
sea  so  beautiful  as  those  of  his  beloved  Napoli. 

In  any  city  one  must  be  properly  introduced  in  order  to 
frequent  "  society  ; "  and  as  this  requires  time,  the  usual 
traveller  is  deprived  of  much  enjoyment  and  information 
that  greater  leisure  would  afford.  But  a  goodly  knowledge 
of  "  the  people  "  of  Naples  may  be  gathered  in  the  streets, 
where  they  so  largely  spend  their  lives.  I  have  already 
spoken  of  the  movement  and  excitement  of  the  Toledo  and 
Santa  Lucia  which  can  scarcely  escape  the  observation  of 
any  visitor  to  Naples ;  but  among  the  many  hundreds  of 
lesser  Neapolitan  streets  there  are  many  which  excite  and 
gratify  the  curiosity  of  those  who  can  endure  the  disagree- 
able sights  and  offensive  odors  encountered  in  them.  All 
this  is  vastly  improved,  in  some  quarters  of  the  city,  since 
I  first  treated  my  eyes  and  olfactories  to  its  peculiarities ; 
but  there  is  still  much  to  be  desired  in  those  districts  where 
the  people,  pure  and  simple,  dwell.  If  the  promenaders  on 
the  Via  Carracciolo  are  compared  with  those  in  the  Mercato 
or  in  the  precincts  of  the  Castel  Nuovo,  it  is  as  if  one 
visited  two  different  worlds. 

In  the  quarters  of  the  poorer  classes  the  men  actually 
live  in  the  street;  they  sleep  there,  and  dress  themselves 
with  perfect  composure  in  the  face  and  eyes  of  any  who 
choose  to  observe  them.  The  women  rarely  sleep  outside 
their  miserable  homes,  but  they  make  their  own  toilets  and 
attend  to  the  wants  of  their  children  in  public ;  they  dress 
their  magnificent  hair,  and  in  the  most  friendly  manner 
perform  for  each  other  such  offices  as  make  them  less  con- 
scious of  their  heads  than  they  would  otherwise  be.  Food 
is  occasionally  cooked  by  the  women,  —  usually  in  the  street 
before  what  they  please  to  call  their  homes,  but  more  fre- 
quently it  is  bought  at  the  cookshops,  such  as  line  the 


208  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Strada  del  Castello,  where  fish  and  cakes  are  sold  for  about 
one  cent;  there  are  fish  soups  and  snail  soup  for  the  small- 
est of  prices,  and  many  kinds  of  cakes,  among  which  the 
anise-flavored  tarallo  is  a  favorite,  as  it  was  more  than 
eighteen  centuries  ago  at  Pompeii.  Then  there  are  the 
frutti  di  mare,  —  shell-fish,  sea-urchins,  —  so  delicious  to 
all  classes  of  Neapolitans,  and  the  sausages  flavored  with 
garlic,  as  well  as  cheese,  and  various  edibles  of  which  I 
cannot  give  the  proper  names.  In  fact,  these  wretched 
little  booths  and  shops  furnish  a  greater  variety  of  penny 
food  than  the  poor  of  other  lands  are  blessed  with.  Fruit 
and  many  vegetables  that  can  be  eaten  raw  are  consumed 
in  great  quantities  by  these  people,  who  rarely  have  meat, 
and  are  not  fond  of  it.  These  cooking-stalls  are  centres  of 
great  crowds,  and  are  conspicuous  by  reason  of  their  pol- 
ished copper  vessels. 

In  truth,  the  arrangement  of  the  street-stalls  affords  an 
amount  of  color  that  constantly  reminds  one  that  he  is 
in  the  South,  where  man  is  in  full  harmony  with  the  sur- 
rounding nature  in  his  love  for  rich  and  brilliant  colors. 
The  caps  and  vests  of  the  men  and  the  handkerchiefs 
of  the  women  give  a  color-emphasis  to  every  act  of  their 
lives.  Even  the  heavily  laden  mules  and  donkeys  have 
fringes  of  gayly  colored  wools  and  touches  of  brightness 
here  and  there,  while  the  horses  and  ponies  that  are  har- 
nessed into  vehicles  are  decorated  with  gaudy  little  flags 
and  shining  metals ;  they  wear  both  pagan  and  Christian 
symbols ;  horns  and  crescents,  and  figures  of  the  Madonna 
and  various  saints  who  are  kindly  disposed  towards  ani- 
mals. These  poor  beasts  have  sore  need  of  some  protec- 
tor, for  the  Neapolitans  overload,  overwork,  and  beat  their 
animals  in  a  way  that  constantly  calls  out  one's  sympathy 
and  indignation.  Force  is  added  to  the  stick  and  lash  by 
yells  and  oaths,  and  the  poor  beasts  drag  loads  that  are 
simply  amazing. 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  209 

The  goats  driven  through  the  streets  twice  a  day  by  the 
caprajo  afford  a  curious  spectacle.  These  little  animated 
dairies  seem  to  know  exactly  what  is  expected  of  them,  and 
do  it  cheerfully ;  they  mount  staircases  or  stand  in  door- 
ways to  be  milked,  and  then  serenely  descend  to  the  street, 
where  the  milking  operation  also  goes  on,  pails  being  let 
down  from  the  higher  stories  and  drawn  up  with  strings. 
Probably  the  goats  are  better  fed  than  other  Neapolitan 
beasts,  and  certainly  better  than  thousands  of  human 
beings  here.  Cows  are  also  driven  about  the  streets  for 
the  same  purpose  as  the  goats,  and  milk  is  the  favorite 
beverage  of  the  people.  The  idiomatic  expression  for  pov- 
erty is  Passa  la  vacca,  which  means  that  there  is  no 
money  to  buy  milk ;  a  serious  condition  of  things  when  the 
enormous  numbers  of  babies  are  considered.  These  poor 
people  marry  at  seventeen,  or  even  younger,  and  their 
houses  literally  swarm  with  children. 

At  the  stall  of  the  acquaiolo,  —  water-seller,  —  a  variety 
of  drinks  may  be  had  at  a  penny  a  glass ;  his  lemonade  is 
freshly  made  for  each  customer,  as  is  also  true  of  the 
poorest  kind  of  water-seller,  who  carries  his  tub  on  his 
back  and  his  basket  of  lemons  on  his  arm  ;  and  though  all 
his  patrons  must  drink  from  his  one  tumbler,  the  water  is 
cold  and  the  juice  is  squeezed  into  it  from  a  fresh  lemon,, 
while  he  demands  but  one  farthing  for  the  cooling  draught. 
It  is  curious  to  note  how  little  these  people  relish  plain 
water  ;  even  since  the  introduction  of  the  Serino  water, 
always  icy  cold,  with  hundreds  of  jets  running  in  the 
streets,  the  Neapolitan  wants  his  water  flavored  with  some- 
thing ;  oftentimes  it  is  the  disagreeable  sambuco,  which  is 
like  a  nauseous  drug,  and  is  said  to  be  distilled  from  the 
elder  shrub.  The  fact  that  Naples  now  has  the  finest 
water-supply  in  the  world  has  failed  to  change  the  drink- 
ing tastes  of  its  people ;  but  though  much  wine  is  pro- 
duced near  Naples,  and  the  people  are  fond  of  going  out  to 

14 


210  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

the  little  country  taverns  on  holidays,  —  where  the  wines 
are  purer  and  cheaper  than  after  passing  the  barriers  and 
paying  the  tax,  —  few  drunken  men  are  seen,  and  the 
Neapolitans  at  home  may  be  called  a  sober  and  frugal 
race.  On  Sunday  afternoons  the  restaurants  on  the  Posi- 
lipo  and  at  Fuorigrotta  are  lively  places,  filled  with  careless 
crowds  who  sing  and  joke  as  if  care  had  been  banished 
from  their  world. 

In  certain  quarters,  on  fixed  days,  a  sort  of  special  sale 
occurs,  such  as  the  rag-fair  all  about  the  Porta  Nolana  on 
Monday  and  Friday  mornings.  At  four  o'clock  the  public 
readers  gather  at  the  Villa  del  Popolo,  where  an  assem- 
blage of  rag-pickers  and  other  worthy  people  who  thirst  for 
knowledge  pay  two  centesimi  each  to  hear  passages  from 
the  classic  poets.  At  other  times  these  curious  intellectual 
symposia  are  held  outside  the  Porta  Capuana.  In  short, 
he  who  knows  his  Naples  can  find  what  he  requires,  from 
his  food  and  clothes  to  the  writer  of  his  love-letters,  and 
the  quacks  who  will  sell  him  nostrums,  in  the  proper  pre- 
cinct, at  the  accustomed  "  office  hours "  of  these  various 
professionals. 

Formerly  each  trade  had  its  separate  quarter,  and  streets 
were  named  accordingly,  as  the  Street  of  the  Knife-grind- 
ers, Via  del  Coltellari.  Recent  changes  have  somewhat 
interfered  with  this  custom ;  but  the  little  Square  of  the 
Goldsmiths  —  Piazza  degli  Orefici  —  retains  its  old  aspect 
as  well  as  any  of  these  trade  quarters.  Here  the  women 
of  Naples  and  of  the  country  buy  the  pearls,  coral,  and 
amber  that  they  love  to  wear,  as  well  as  quaint  and  curi- 
ously wrought  amulets  and  the  votive  offerings  in  silver  to 
be  given  to  the  Madonna ;  these  last  are  frequently  in  the 
shape  of  the  hands  and  feet  that  are  believed  to  have  been 
cured  of  their  deformity  and  ills  by  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
quite  regardless  of  any  scientific  treatment  they  may 
have  had. 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  211 

The  peasant  jewelry  is  growing  less  and  less  distinctive. 
When  each  district  had  its  special  costume,  as  I  had  the 
happiness  of  seeing,  and  even  the  ornaments  revealed  the 
birthplace  of  the  wearer,  the  peasants  were  quaint  and 
interesting  as  they  can  never  be  again.  Thanks  to  their 
Southern  nature,  their  love  of  color  still  redeems  their  dress 
from  that  ugliness  seen  in  our  own  country,  in  England, 
and  many  other  lands,  which  seems  to  work  its  spell  alike 
on  the  Japanese,  the  Neapolitan,  and  even  the  women  of 
Cairo  and  Constantinople.  It  is  only  on  rare  occasions, 
such  as  high  festivals,  that  a  few  of  the  fascinating  old 
costumes  are  still  seen  on  women  who  are  no  longer  young. 

Near  the  cathedral,  as  in  the  neighborhood  of  St.  Peter's 
at  Rome,  is  a  street  where  only  crosses,  rosaries,  and  kin- 
dred objects  are  sold,  while  certain  other  quarters  are 
inhabited  by  dealers  in  second-hand  clothing  and  a  great 
variety  of  half-used  articles. 

The  homes  of  these  poorer  Neapolitans  are  called  Sassi, 
and  are,  in  reality,  little  windowless  shops  with  no  chim- 
neys. They  are  not  devoted  to  the  comfort  and  needs  of 
the  family,  but  to  the  trade  of  the  man,  who  in  summer 
time  usually  draws  a  mattress  into  the  street  for  his  own  bed, 
while  any  number  of  human  beings,  —  frequently  a  dozen,  — 
of  all  ages  and  both  sexes,  take  their  repose  on  the  enor- 
mous bed  which  stands  at  the  back  of  the  basso,  or  on  a 
loft  above  it.  These  bedsteads  with  their  mattresses  make 
the  entire  fortune  of  a  bride  of  the  working-classes,  and 
cost  about  twenty  dollars.  The  other  furnishing  of  a  basso 
is  usually  supplied  by  the  husband ;  there  is  always  an 
image  of  the  Madonna  on  the  wall,  before  which  a  light  is 
religiously  kept  burning  ;  a  few  rough  pieces  of  furniture, 
frequently  home-made,  and  a  charcoal  stove  make  up  the 
conveniences  which  are  deemed  necessary.  The  stove  is 
often  a  necessity  for  the  work  of  the  man,  —  as  the  occu- 
pants of  the  lassi  are  generally  mechanics,  —  but  is  also 


212  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

used  for  the  cooking  of  the  family,  which  is  little  more 
than  a  vegetable  soup  flavored  with  garlic,  and  eaten  with 
the  coarse  bread  which  they  buy.  Maccaroni,  which  the 
world  at  large  seems  to  consider  as  the  chief  food  of  the 
Neapolitan  race,  is  far  too  expensive  for  these  people,  and 
is  rarely  tasted  by  them.  But  how  fond  of  it  they  are  ! 
and  when  prepared  with  pomi  d'oro  —  tomatoes  —  it  is  the 
most  delicious  food  that  they  can  imagine. 

Their  marketing  is  done  in  a  primitive  fashion.  A  pado- 
lano  driving  a  mule  on  which  hang  two  huge  panniers, 
filled  with  vegetables,  arouses  the  whole  street  through 
which  he  passes  with  frightful  bellowings.  He  sells  his 
wares  for  the  smallest  possible  prices  ;  five  or  six  sous  will 
buy  what  will  make  soup  for  as  many  persons.  As  soon  as 
one  pannier  is  emptied,  he  begins  filling  it  with  manure 
from  the  piles  of  refuse  in  the  streets.  The  goats,  dogs, 
cats,  and  fowls  supplement  the  work  of  the  padolano  as 
scavengers,  and  but  for  them  how  could  the  scavenging  be 
done  in  alleys  where  no  cart  can  go  ? 

The  door  of  the  basso  is  always  open  by  day,  frankly  dis- 
closing all  that  takes  place  within  ;  but  it  must  be  carefully 
closed  at  night,  to  guard  against  thieves.  What  must  the 
atmosphere  be  ?  Certainly  the  women  are  patient  and  un- 
selfish when  they  do  not  occasionally  fasten  the  men  inside 
the  basst  and  sleep  in  the  fresh  air  themselves. 

Great  numbers  of  Neapolitans  gain  their  living  as  fisher- 
men, and  do  this  at  the  hardest;  for  in  spite  of  the  many 
kinds  of  fish  which  inhabit  the  bay,  the  great  consumption 
of  fish  in  Naples  makes  an  over  demand,  even  on  this  fruit- 
ful water.  Few  fishermen  gain  anything  beyond  a  meagre 
living,  and  that  is  toiled  for  beneath  the  scorching  sun  and 
in  spite  of  the  debilitating  sirocco  in  summer  and  in  face 
of  the  keen  winds  from  the  snow  mountains  in  winter. 

The  different  varieties  of  fish  caught  here  necessitate 
many  methods  of  fishing,  and  even  the  little  that  one  may 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  213 

see  of  them  from  the  deck  of  the  steamer  or  pleasure-boat 
is  interesting.  The  taking  of  the  frutti  di  mare  is  most 
fatiguing  labor.  It  is  done  with  a  long  pole  to  which  are 
fastened  a  rake  and  a  bag ;  the  rake,  pushed  down  with 
force,  pulls  up  a  heavy  weight  of  earth  and  sweeps  it  into 
the  bag ;  when  raised  to  the  boat  the  shell-fish  are  picked 
out,  and  the  remaining  earth  thrown  back  into  the  water. 
The  best  wages  earned  at  this  hard  work  do  not  exceed  a 
dollar  a  day,  and  it  cannot  be  followed  too  long,  as  the  men 
are  frequently  injured  by  the  continual  strain  of  it.  The 
sea-eggs  or  sea-urchins  are  more  easily  taken,  but  are  not 
so  profitable.  Anchovy-fishing  in  the  spring  is  very  ex- 
citing. The  boats  go  out  some  distance  and  lie  to ;  sud- 
denly a  school  of  porpoises  appears,  seemingly  in  great 
excitement ;  the  boatmen  quickly  row  into  the  midst  of  the 
porpoises,  and  cast  their  nets  around  the  spot  where  the 
school  is  feeding ;  the  porpoises  get  out  of  the  way  as 
quickly  as  possible,  and  after  a  good  deal  of  confusion  the 
nets  are  hauled  in,  filled  with  a  mass  of  anchovies,  and 
hours  of  patient  labor  are  required  to  disentangle  them. 
Sardines  are  also  plenty  in  the  spring,  especially  in  the 
Bay  of  Pozzuoli ;  these  are  taken  best  at  night. 

We  know  of  a  single  net  in  which  ten  different  kinds  of 
fish  were  drawn  up  together,  and  were  told  that  this  is  not 
uncommon  ;  but  alas  !  many  of  them  are  only  fit  for  the 
soup-pot  and  bring  the  fishermen  little  money. 

All  Neapolitans  are  superstitious,  but  the  implicit  belief 
of  the  fishermen  in  ghosts  and  black  spirits  is  amazing. 
They  try  to  find  an  antidote  to  their  fears  of  the  dangerous 
spirits  which  infest  the  coasts  and  seas  in  the  strictness 
of  their  religious  observances.  Whenever  a  new  boat  is 
finished,  an  altar  is  raised  on  the  forecastle  and  a  priest 
blesses  the  craft ;  if  bad  luck  follows  a  fisherman,  a  priest 
is  brought  to  break  the  spell  and  exorcise  the  evil  spirit ; 
and  the  numbers  of  churches  dedicated  to  saints  who  favor 


214  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

fishermen  bear  witness  to  the  liberality  of  this  class  in  the 
large  collections  of  votive  offerings.  Almost  every  Marina 
has  its  church,  and  an  annual  festa  is  held,  when  the  whole 
Marina  is  illuminated  ;  these  occasions  afford  an  excellent 
opportunity  for  studying  the  costumes  and  manners  of  the 
poorer  classes,  by  whom  they  are  principally  attended.  At 
Massa,  on  August  15,  the  festa  is  unusually  pretty,  and  the 
women  seen  there  are  famed  for  their  beauty. 

The  people  we  have  described  are  as  poor  and  wretched 
in  appearance  as  any  that  the  usual  traveller  is  likely  to 
see  in  Naples,  and  it  would  seem  to  require  great  patience 
to  be  cheerful,  as  they  are,  in  the  midst  of  their  poverty ; 
but  when  compared  with  many  thousands  who  exist  here, 
they  are  absolutely  wealthy  and  luxurious.  The  appalling 
misery  and  degradation  of  the  very  poorest  Neapolitans  ex- 
ceeds such  conditions  in  other  European  cities,  and  cannot 
be  fully  described  in  language  that  is  not  too  expressive  to 
be  acceptable.  It  is  estimated  that  a  quarter  of  a  million 
of  human  beings  in  Naples  maintain  their  lives  of  absolute 
want  in  a  manner  that  cannot  be  explained.  Thousands 
and  thousands  have  no  claim  on  any  home  whatever  ;  they 
crowd  into  dens  and  kennels  such  as  decent  beasts  would 
refuse  to  enter ;  they  have  no  occupation ;  coming  naked 
into  the  world,  they  may  be  said  to  leave  it  in  the  same 
condition,  for,  until  recently,  they  were  dropped  into  a  hole 
in  the  cemetery  for  the  poor,  in  which  all  who  had  died  on 
the  same  day  — .most  of  them  with  no  garments  whatever 
—  were  hidden  from  the  face  of  the  earth. 

Eight  years  ago,  in  1876,  the  Senatore,  Professore  Pas- 
quale  Villari,  was  instrumental  in  making  researches  which 
divulged  horrors  not  before  imagined,  in  the  lives  of  these 
people,  as  may  be  read  in  his  "  Southern  Letters."  Thou- 
sands of  children  who  have  never  known  father  or  mother 
live  chiefly  on  the  refuse  of  the  streets,  and  sleep  heaven 
only  knows  where.  They  are  seen  curled  up  on  church 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  215 

steps,  or  in  strange  corners  of  the  market,  and  even  in 
empty  fruit-boxes  and  fish-baskets ;  and  sad  as  this  appears, 
they  are  to  be  envied  beside  many  others  who  live  in  the 
fondaci  —  called,  by  Dr.  Axel  Munthe,  "  the  most  ghastly 
human  dwellings  on  the  face  of  the  earth." 

These  buildings  are  large,  several  stories  in  height,  hav- 
ing fifteen  or  more  rooms  on  a  floor,  and  are  entirely  with- 
out windows.  They  are  built  in  the  vilest  locations,  off 
dark  alleys,  while  in  the  court  the  cesspool  and  well  are 
much  too  nearly  related.  In  the  court,  too,  are  goats, 
cows,  mules,  and  other  animals  in  the  dirtiest  condition ; 
while  odors  from  rotting  tripe  and  other  unmentionable 
offal,  and  from  fish  that  has  been  condemned  by  people 
who  are  better  off,  rise  and  fill  the  otherwise  stifling  rooms 
where  from  one  to  three  hundred  —  possibly  more  —  human 
beings  exist.  The  details  of  fondaci  life  are  absolutely  un- 
speakable. Inside  balconies  furnish  the  only  light  and  air 
to  the  apartments,  and  the  corner  rooms  are  always  dark  ; 
old  rags  hang  about  everywhere,  and  different  families 
occupying  a  single  room  can  only  make  a  pretence  of  sepa- 
rating themselves  from  each  other  by  suspending  their 
miserable  garments  on  strings. 

Public  attention  was  called  to  these  conditions  in  1876, 
when  Senatore  Villari,  who  went  to  London  for  the  pur- 
pose of  seeing  the  poor,  and  visited  the  very  worst  quarters 
where  they  live,  declared  that  the  conditions  in  London,  un- 
speakably vile  as  they  were,  were  still  better  than  in  the  cor- 
responding precincts  of  Naples.  From  this  time  attempts 
were  made  to  mend  matters,  and  in  1877  the  municipality 
gave  land  to  a  co-operative  society,  which  built  excellent 
tenement-houses  on  spots  where  fondaci  had  stood.  Other 
good  houses  were  built  in  the  following  years ;  but,  alas,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  old  quarters  did  not  get  them.  They  were 
filled  by  a  much  superior  class  at  such  rents  as  entirely 
defeated  the  supposed  objects  for  which  they  were  erected  ; 


216  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

and  a  part  of  the  old  fondaci  being  gone,  those  that  re- 
mained were  crowded  in  an  inconceivable  manner. 

In  1884,  when  the  cholera  raged  furiously  in  Naples,  and 
many  thousand  of  the  wretched  funnaehere  died,  King 
Humbert  went  himself  to  visit  them,  and  saw  such  horrors 
as  he  had  never  imagined.  He  stood  beside  the  stricken 
wretches  in  their  awful  abodes,  and  promised  that  the  poor 
should  be  better  housed  in  future.  But  even  monarchs 
cannot  work  their  will ;  and  these  miserables  now  complain 
that,  though  the  king  tried  to  keep  his  promises,  as  he 
certainly  did,  the  signori  have  kept  the  new  houses  for 
themselves.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that  officials  and  con- 
tractors are  much  the  same  the  world  over,  that  red  tape 
abounds  everywhere,  and  that  there  are  many  ways  of  find- 
ing how  not  to  do  what  straightforward  honesty  requires. 
Thus,  although  the  king  put  his  seal  to  a  decree  for  the 
better  housing  of  the  poor  in  Naples  in  1885,  and  a  gift 
of  fifty  million  francs  and  a  loan  of  the  same  amount  were 
made  for  this  purpose,  in  the  autumn  of  1892  very  little 
had  been  accomplished,  and  the  greater  crowding  of  the 
fewer  fondaci  even  made  matters  worse  than  ever. 

Meantime  the  Serino  water  has  been  given  freely  to  all 
the  people  of  Naples,  and  some  improvements  have  been 
made  in  the  sewers.  A  more  decent  method  of  burial  for 
the  poor  has  also  been  inaugurated  in  the  new  cemetery, 
where  each  one  can  now  have  a  coffin  and  a  grave  for 
eighteen  months  at  least ;  but  even  this  cemetery,  but  three 
years  in  use,  is  already  very  full,  so  great  is  the  mortality 
among  these  wretched  creatures.  The  Royal  Commissary, 
in  his  report  in  the  autumn  of  1892.  says :  — 

"  For  six  months  a  famished  mob,  turba  famelica,  have 
thronged  the  stairs  of  the  municipality,  —  children  of  both  sexes, 
utterly  destitute,  who  must  of  necessity  go  to  the  bad  ;  mothers 
clasping  dying  babies  to  their  milkless  breasts ;  widows  fol- 
lowed by  a  tribe  of  almost  naked  children  ;  aged  and  infirm  of 


Santa  Lucia. 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  217 

both  sexes,  hungry  and  in  tatters,  —  and  this  spectacle,  which 
has  wrung  my  heart,  reveals  but  a  small  portion  of  the  preva- 
lent destitution.  One  can  but  marvel  at  the  docile  nature  of 
the  lower  orders  of  Neapolitans,  who  bear  with  such  resignation 
and  patience  their  unutterable  sufferings.  One  cannot  think 
without  shuddering  of  this  winter,  which  overtook  whole  fam- 
ilies without  a  roof  over  their  heads,  without  a  rag  to  cover 
them,  without  the  slightest  provision  for  their  maintenance." 

A  little  later  the  Commissary  insisted  that  housing 
should  be  provided  for  fifteen  hundred  people,  no  room  to 
cost  more  than  a  dollar  a  month.  Even  under  this  call 
many  people  got  the  advantage  of  these  tenements  who 
had  never  lived  in  fondaci.  However,  a  few  funnachere 
were,  for  the  first  time  in  their  lives,  in  clean  and  whole- 
some habitations  ;  and  still  later,  two  thousand  more,  this 
time  of  the  very  poorest,  were  taken  from  their  squalor 
and  translated  into  decency.  It  would  seem  that  these 
changes  must  continue ;  that  so  many  having  found  what 
can  be,  others  will  insist  that  it  must  be. 

It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  the  poor  people  have  often 
been  much  opposed  to  changes  that  looked  to  their  welfare. 
In  Santa  Lucia  there  was  great  opposition  to  the  widening 
of  the  street  and  the  making  of  the  broad  quay,  now  so 
much  enjoyed.  The  luciani  scorned  the  new  stalls  for  the 
shell-fish  traders,  and  prophesied  that  these,  as  well  as  the 
new  houses  near  the  Castel  dell'  Ovo,  would  be  carried  out 
to  sea  by  the  first  strong  wind.  The  fondaci  of  this  quarter 
are  not  quite  so  filthy  and  crowded  as  those  of  some  other 
neighborhoods,  and  the  people  are  far  more  difficult  to  deal 
with.  They  declare  that  their  houses  shall  stand,  and  that 
the  rents  of  the  new  ones  are  too  dear  ;  and  thus  far  they 
have  had  their  own  way,  unless  some  change  has  been 
made  very  recently. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  describe  the  best  portions  of 
Naples,  which  must  attract  and  charm  all  who  visit  them. 


218  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

What  city  boasts  a  drive  by  the  sea  so  beautiful  as  the 
Carracciolo  from  the  Castel  dell'  Ovo  to  Mergellina  ?  Other 
charming  drives  are  the  Via  Tasso,  the  road  to  Posilipo, 
the  Corso  Vittore  Emmanuele,  and  the  Yomero.  The  Corso 
Garibaldi,  the  Strada  di  Foria,  and  the  Via  del  Duomo  are 
fine,  new  streets.  An  interesting  episode  is  connected  with 
the  making  of  the  latter.  It  was  laid  out  in  such  a  way  as 
to  preserve  the  cathedral  and  the  church  of  S.  Filippo 
Neri,  —  the  Gerolimini,  —  and  by  this  method  the  Palazzo 
Cuomo,  the  only  remaining  palace  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
must  have  been  sacrificed  had  not  Prince  Filangieri  had  it 
carefully  taken  down,  stone  by  stone,  and  rebuilt  on  the 
side  of  the  new  street.  The  prince  completed  his  noble 
generosity  by  filling  the  palace  with  a  good  collection  of 
medieval  objects,  pictures,  and  Italian  majolicas,  which 
make  an  interesting  museum,  and  presenting  it  to  the  city. 

The  Villa  Nazionale,  a  delightful  fashionable  resort,  has 
an  unusual  attraction  in  the  magnificent  aquarium,  which, 
under  the  care  of  Dr.  Dohrn,  and  by  the  generous  support  of 
his  government,  as  well  as  that  of  Italy  and  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, has  been  made  the  finest  and  most  important  aquarium 
in  the  world.  It  affords  splendid  opportunities  for  study 
to  naturalists  and  students  from  all  quarters  of  the  globe  ; 
its  library  and  laboratory,  its  steam,  sailing,  and  rowing 
boats,  and  many  other  needful  equipments,  make  it  an  ideal 
place  for  the  investigation  of  the  wonderful  varieties  of  the 
life  of  the  sea  which  exist  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  spot 
where  the  Aquarium  now  is  was  probably  the  foulest  beach 
in  Europe,  perhaps  in  the  world,  before  the  laying  out  of 
the  Via  Carracciolo. 

When  I  remember  the  Naples  of  other  days,  it  seems  as 
if  fairies  had  already  waved  their  wands  over  the  city  to 
good  purpose.  The  new  palaces  and  houses  on  the  east 
and  west  of  the  city  are  fine ;  and  different  societies  and 
institutions  have  erected  convenient  houses  for  a  class  that 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  219 

before  inhabited  unhealthy  and  undesirable  quarters.  These 
are  seen  in  the  Rione  Vasto  at  Capuano ;  and  in  the  Rione 
Arenaccia  Orientale  one  is  amazed  at  the  improvement. 
In  the  Rione  Vomero  Arenella,  to  which  cable  railways 
now  extend,  the  population  has  increased  surprisingly. 
One  happy  improvement  is  in  the  trams  and  cable  roads 
which  replace  to  a  great  extent  the  dirty  vehicles  of  other 
days,  dragged  by  horses  which  excited  one's  pity,  unmer- 
cifully overloaded  and  driven  as  they  were. 

When  other  kindred  improvements  are  made, —  when  wide 
streets  are  cut  through  the  city  from  east  to  west,  when 
the  scheme  for  arterial  drainage  is  carried  out  and  the 
sewage  conducted  twelve  miles  away,  —  and  many  other  con- 
templated betterments  perfected,  Naples  will  easily  be  the 
most  beautiful  city  in  the  world  ;  it  will  be  the  Paradise 
the  great  German  poet  found  it,  and  we  believe  that  the 
"  devils  "  by  which  it  was  inhabited  in  his  day  will  have 
disappeared. 

The  most  extensive  and  splendid  edifice  which  has  been 
erected  in  Naples  within  the  last  decade  is  the  Galleria 
Umberto  I.  Di  Mauro,  a  Roman  architect,  made  the  plan, 
which  is  magnificently  carried  out  in  every  detail.  It  is 
said  to  have  cost  more  than  four  million  dollars,  a  large 
sum  having  been  contributed  by  the  municipality.  Its 
exterior  is  not  so  fine  as  it  would  have  been  had  not  two 
churches  and  several  private  houses  been  incorporated  in 
it.  But  the  interior  is  most  effective  ;  the  centre  octagon, 
beneath  a  glass  dome  rising  nearly  two  hundred  feet  above 
it,  is  very  imposing.  The  decorations  in  stucco  and  gilding 
are  fine,  especially  when  seen  by  the  electric  light,  and  the 
angels  in  copper,  below  the  dome,  are  artistic  and  pleasing, 
as  well  as  the  statues  and  reliefs  about  the  main  entrance 
in  the  Strada  S.  Carlo. 

At  No.  8,  in  the  gallery,  a  presepe  is  seen  that  is  said 
to  have  belonged  to  King  Charles  III.  The  antiquarian 


220  NAPLES  AND  ITS    ENVIRONS. 

Varelli  superintended  its  arrangement  here ;  and  it  is 
interesting  as  illustrating  a  custom  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, when  in  all  churches  and  many  private  houses  a  pre- 
sepe  was  erected  at  Christmas  time.  It  represents  the 
infant  Jesus  in  the  manger  and  the  adoration  of  the  Magi, 
as  well  as  scenes  of  Neapolitan  life  in  addition.  All  Nea- 
politans are  fond  of  this  realistic  representation  of  the  Na- 
tivity ;  and  a  really  old  presepe,  like  this  one,  is  well  worth 
seeing  on  account  of  the  curious  historical  costumes. 

As  yet  the  Galleria  has  not  been  successfully  rented.  In 
fact,  the  Neapolitans  love  a  more  open  place  in  which  to 
buy  and  sell ;  and  this  Galleria,  like  that  of  the  Principe  di 
Napoli,  opposite  the  Museo  Nazionale,  is  little  frequented. 

There  are  two  hundred  edifices  in  Naples  devoted  to 
charitable  institutions,  having  an  annual  income  of  eight 
or  ten  millions  of  francs  ;  but  abuses  have  crept  into  the 
management  of  these  charities  which  give  the  benefit  of  a 
large  part  of  this  money  to  governors,  deputies,  councillors, 
and  priests. 

The  Albergo  dei  Poveri,  before  mentioned,  has  a  family 
of  but  two  thousand  poor,  for  the  care  of  whom  more  than 
seven  hundred  persons  are  employed,  while  the  children 
have  scarcely  a  change  of  clothing.  The  schools  of  the 
institution  have  been  sadly  neglected,  and  one  well-informed 
writer  says :  — 

"One  governor  succeeds  another;  one  sells  five  thousand 
square  metres  of  land  to  a  building  society  for  eleven  lire  per 
metre,  at  a  time  when  in  certain  portions  of  the  city  land  is 
worth  three  or  four  hundred  lire.  His  successor  brings  an 
action  against  the  purchaser,  and  the  costs  are  enormous.  An- 
other has  farmed  out  the  rents  to  some  collector  at  far  too  low 
a  price  ;  another  action  is  brought.  The  chemist  is  proved  to 
have  substituted  flour  for  quinine,  Dover's  powders  without 
opium,  and  is  suspended.  But  the  corpo  delicto,  i.  e.,  the 
analyzed  medicines  have  disappeared ;  the  chemist  will  come 


Galleria  Umberto  I. 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  221 

off  triumphant,  and  the  Albergo  del  Poveri  will  have  to  pay 
costs  and  damages,  and  possibly  to  meet  an  action  for  libel. 
Of  course  there  is  a  deficit  in  the  budget ;  and  this  will  con- 
tinue to  increase,  whoever  may  be  governor,  as  long  as  the 
system  remains,  and  as  long  as  places  are  created  for  the  pro- 
teges of  Senator  A,  Deputy  B,  or  Councillor  C." 

The  Foundling  Hospital,  Casa  del  Trovatelli,  adjoins  the 
church  of  the  Annunziata.  Here  the  boys  are  kept  until 
they  are  seven  years  old,  and  the  girls  can  remain  as  long 
as  they  choose,  finding  employment  as  house-servants  or 
as  seamstresses  and  embroiderers.  Some  of  the  customs 
of  this  institution  are  admirable,  —  such  as  giving  the  boy 
babies  out  to  board ;  the  Neapolitans  regard  them  as  the 
children  of  the  Blessed  Mother,  and  fully  believe  the  legend 
that  the  Madonna  dell'  Infrascata  leaves  her  pedestal  at 
night  to  visit  her  children,  and  punishes  the  foster  mother 
who  neglects  them ;  thus  it  results  that  the  foundling  fares 
better  than  the  baby  of  the  home. 

Formerly  the  foundlings  were  pushed  through  an  aper- 
ture in  the  wall,  where  a  nun  waited  to  receive  them  ;  but 
that  having  been  closed  since  1875,  they  are  now  received 
inside  the  hospital,  where  all  possible  information  about 
them  is  obtained  and  recorded ;  whatever  clothing  or  orna- 
ments these  babies  have  are  carefully  put  aside  in  the 
hope  that  some  day  they  may  be  claimed  and  identified  by 
means  of  these  articles ;  but  this  occurs  very  rarely.  The 
foundlings  are  at  once  baptized,  and  take  the  name  of  the 
saint  of  the  day  on  which  they  are  brought  to  the  hospital ; 
they  are  given  the  surname  of  the  Governor  of  the  Hos- 
pital, and  as  the  governors  are  changed  each  year  one 
easily  reckons  the  age  of  these  children ;  thus  Anna  Celotta 
was  born  on  St.  Anna's  Day  in  the  year  when  Celotta  was 
governor  of  the  Casa  dei  Trovatelli.  At  times  the  mortal- 
ity in  this  hospital  has  reached  more  than  ninety  per  cent ; 
but  the  Serino  water  and  some  other  improvements  have 


222  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

made  its  death-rate  considerably  less.  A  much  needed 
maternity  hospital  has  been  opened  in  connection  with  the 
Foundling,  and  is  admirably  conducted. 

A  few  years  ago  it  was  found  that  the  enormous  Hospital 
for  Incurables  was  shamefully  mismanaged.  Even  the  food 
for  the  patients  was  stolen  by  the  employe's,  while  there 
were  not  sheets  enough  to  make  up  the  beds,  although  the 
purser's  report  included  a"  charge  of  five  thousand  dollars 
for  linen.  Special  commissioners  were  appointed  ;  and  not 
only  has  this  hospital  been  thoroughly  cleaned  and  reno- 
vated in  various  ways,  but  new  regulations  are  enforced 
which  will  prevent  the  recurrence  of  these  abuses  if  only 
they  can  be  maintained. 

The  new  laws  looking  to  the  better  management  of 
charitable  institutions  in  Naples  have  not  had  time  to  work 
all  the  good  expected  from  them ;  but  much  has  been  ac- 
complished, and  the  charities  under  private  control  amply 
prove  that  an  immense  alleviation  of  the  sufferings  of  the 
poor  ought  to  result  from  the  revenues  of  the  endowed 
institutions.  The  Lina  Hospital,  founded  by  the  Duchess 
Ravaschiera  in  memory  of  her  daughter,  is  a  delightful 
example  of  good  management.  Eighty  beds  are  occupied 
by  children  in  need  of  surgical  operations.  The  Duchess 
does  not  leave  its  conduct  entirely  to  others.  She  some- 
times lives  and  sleeps  there ;  and  the  affection  of  the  poor 
little  sufferers  for  "  Mamma  Duchessa"  is  most  touching. 

Twenty  thousand  dollars  a  year  supports  two  hundred 
and  eighty-five  boarders,  and  but  a  few  less  day  scholars, 
in  the  Asylum  for  Girls  orphaned  by  the  cholera  in  1884. 
This  is  a  private  charity,  and  makes  rich  returns  for  the 
money  expended,  as  the  old,  endowed  institutions  ought  to 
do.  The  girls  are  all  taught  a  trade,  and  fitted  to  support 
themselves  well. 

The  crying  want  of  Naples  is  schools.  It  already  has 
some  elementary  and  industrial  schools  which  are  excel- 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  223 

lent,  but  many  more  are  needed.  The  Tstituto  Casanova  is 
named  for  its  founder ;  established  in  1862,  it  was  carried 
on  as  a  private  work  eighteen  years,  when  its  importance 
and  excellence  were  recognized  by  a  government  grant  of 
a  large  building  and  eleven  new  workshops  with  land  for 
gymnastic  exercises,  and  other  similar  purposes.  A  sin- 
gular method  is  followed  here,  which  is  thus  described  by 
Mrs.  Mario :  — 

"  The  boys  for  the  first  two  years,  or  until  they  are  nine, 
attend  the  elementary  schools  exclusively ;  then  they  or  their 
parents  choose  a  trade,  and  as  soon  as  their  work  becomes 
profitable  they  are  paid  a  certain  sum,  fixed  by  the  master- 
workman  and  the  director  of  the  establishment,  who  receives 
the  pay  of  the  boys  weekly,  and  gives  half  to  them  and  half  to 
the  establishment." 

The  graduates  from  this  school  are  sought  by  all  the 
workshops  of  Naples.  A  similar  school  is  that  founded  by 
Signer  Florenzano  in  the  old  convent  of  S.  Antonio  a 
Tarsia,  where  the  boys  are  taken  from  the  worst  slums, 
and  number  about  three  hundred.  This  school  is  not  so 
rich  as  it  ought  to  be ;  it  makes  a  splendid  return  for  the 
money  spent.  Could  Signer  Florenzano  and  a  few  other 
men  of  his  sort  command  the  means,  they  would  soon 
revolutionize  the  street  life  of  Naples  to  the  inestimable  ad- 
vantage of  its  boys.  The  excellent  private  charity  schools 
for  the  blind  merit  high  praise,  and  shine  by  contrast  with 
the  corresponding  school  of  the  Albergo  dei  Poveri. 

I  have  the  pleasure  of  knowing  a  lady  who  has  been 
connected  with  the  Victor  Emmanuel  International  Insti- 
tute—  formerly  Froebel  Institute  —  about  twenty  years. 
This  school  was  founded  by  Julia  Salis  Schwabe  in  1860. 
She  was  a  devoted  admirer  of  Garibaldi,  and  began  this 
work  in  response  to  his  appeal  for  the  education  of  the 
poor  in  Southern  Italy.  Senatore  Villari  undertook  its  care, 


224  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

and  the  old  college  of  S.  Aniello  was  devoted  to  its  uses. 
There  are  day  schools  —  infant  and  elementary  classes  — 
as  well  as  a  boarding-school  for  girls.  Some  children  who 
can  afford  to  pay  attend  these  schools,  and  the  way  in 
which  the  "  haves  "  care  for  the  "  have  nots  "  is  very  curi- 
ous and  interesting.  They  endow  them  with  their  cast- 
off  clothes,  and  by  the  tuition  they  pay  furnish  soup  for 
four  hundred  daily.  The  pupils  here  are  being  admirably 
trained  as  teachers  of  the  Pestalozzian  system.  As  my 
friend  —  whose  home  is  in  Munich  —  has  told  me  of  this 
and  similar  work  which  is  being  done  in  Naples,  I  have 
felt  that  there  is  a  promise  of  better  things  for  the  pez- 
zenti  —  miserables  —  and  all  the  wretchedness  one  sees, 
which  is  so  out  of  harmony  with  the  wealth  of  beauty 
which  the  Almighty  has  lavished  on  the  location  and  sur- 
roundings of  the  city  of  Parthenope. 

The  industries  of  Naples  are  far  too  few  and  unimpor- 
tant for  the  size  of  its  population.  We  have  spoken  of  the 
fisheries ;  perhaps  market-gardening  is  equally  important, 
and  employs  women  as  well  as  men.  The  cameo-cutting 
in  such  shells  as  are  always  for  sale  at  S.  Lucia,  is  almost 
a  thing  of  the  past.  It  has  greatly  deteriorated  in  design 
and  execution,  although  the  Museum  offers  so  rich  a  store 
of  splendid  antique  cameos,  —  copies  of  which,  if  well 
made,  would  be  valuable,  even  in  shell. 

The  tortoise-shell  industry  is  almost  a  specialty  of  Naples  ; 
at  least,  the  finest  of  this  work  is  made  here  and  in  great 
quantities.  The  wages  paid  the  tortoise-shell  workers  are 
better  than  formerly,  although  the  frightful  rooms  —  at  the 
top  of  the  fondaci  in  order  to  get  light  —  where  these  beau- 
tiful objects  are  made,  are  totally  unfit  for  human  habita- 
tions. The  exquisite  lorgnettes,  combs,  brooches,  and  other 
articles  in  tortoise-shell  are  produced  by  a  veritably  out- 
rageous "  sweating  system." 

Bronze  factories  have  been  established  here  recently,  in 


NEAPOLITAN  LITE.  225 

which  the  cera  perduta  —  wasted  wax  —  method  is  carried 
to  perfection.  The  antique  bronzes  existing  in  Naples 
make  this  casting  especially  suitable  here,  and  it  promises 
to  be  an  important  industry  in  the  future.  Some  English 
firms,  like  that  of  Sir  W.  Armstrong  &  Co.,  cannon  and 
armor-plate  manufacturers,  have  erected  works  at  Cantiere 
Armstrong  and  in  other  locations,  which  have  been  a  boon 
in  the  employment  afforded  in  their  erection,  and  have  no 
doubt  somewhat  checked  emigration.  But  the  silk-trade  of 
Italy  is  much  less  than  formerly ;  the  adherence  to  old 
modes  of  labor  by  preference,  and  the  poverty  which  would 
prevent  buying  improved  machines  and  implements  in  any 
case,  combine  to  hinder  the  progress  here  which  has  been 
reached  elsewhere ;  and  as  one  becomes  better  acquainted 
with  what  Aunt  Ophelia,  in  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  would 
have  termed  "  real  shiftlessness  "  in  almost  all  industrial 
directions,  he  becomes  convinced  that  any  greater  pros- 
perity is  somewhat  distant.  But,  again,  when  we  reflect 
upon  the  short  time  that  has  elapsed  since  Naples  was  born, 
so  to  speak, — since  she  was  given  anything  that  could  in  any 
sense  be  called  her  freedom, — we  must  admit  that  any  criti- 
cism of  her  conditions  should  be  made  in  true  charity  and 
with  friendly  caution. 


15 


CHAPTER   X. 

NEAPOLITAN  LIFE  —  continued. 

"T)  EFERENCE  has  been  made  to  the  superstitions  of  the 
A-V  fishermen ;  but  what  Neapolitan,  from  the  lowest  to 
the  highest,  is  not  superstitious  ?  The  usual  harmless  cre- 
dulities that  are  met  all  over  the  world  exist  here  also ;  but 
belief  in  the  evil  eye,  fascination,  the  jettatura,  is  all-pre- 
vailing. The  theory  is  that  certain  people  have  the  quality 
of  fatal  fascination,  and  exert  it  both  intentionally  and  in- 
voluntarily on  any  person  or  object  on  which  they  cast  their 
eye.  How  to  avoid  this  danger  is  a  serious  problem ;  and 
so  sincere  is  the  belief  in  this  power  and  its  prevalence, 
that  almost  every  ill  that  can  possibly  happen  is  attributed 
to  the  evil  eye.  Children  are  thought  to  be  especially  sus- 
ceptible to  this  influence ;  and  no  matter  how  scantily  clothed 
and  fed  the  little  Neapolitans  may  be,  they  have  some  sort 
of  amulet  to  protect  them  from  the  jettatura,  almost  with- 
out exception. 

If  one  loses  anything,  it  is  supposed  that  a  fascinator  has 
cast  an  eye  on  it ;  or  if  a  fragile  article  falls  and  is  broken, 
it  has  been  done  by  the  power  of  a  jettatore ;  in  fact,  no 
one  who  accepts  this  theory  can  be  comfortable  without  the 
proper  amulet  or  charm,  which  performs  its  office  by  fixing 
the  attention  of  the  evil  eye,  and  thus  receiving  the  fatal 
glance  which  would  be  so  dangerous  to  the  wearer  of  the 
amulet.  The  medals  of  saints  and  Madonnas  are  not 
charms ;  they  are  an  expression  of  religious  devotion  to  the 
Blessed  Mother  and  the  patron  saint  of  the  wearer.  Amu- 
lets have  quite  different  forms,  the  most  common  being  the 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  227 

horn  of  the  antelope  or  its  antlers,  a  sprig  of  rue,  a  crescent 
moon  with  a  face  in  it,  a  hand  with  the  index  and  little 
finger  extended  and  the  other  fingers  doubled  down.  They 
are  made  of  silver,  coral,  or  gold,  and  are  worn  in  some  con- 
spicuous place  about  the  person. 

Amulets  in  the  form  of  horns  and  crescents  are  put  on 
animals  as  religiously  as  they  are  taken  to  be  blessed  on 
S.  Anthony's  Day,  when  the  certificate  of  the  blessing  is 
tied  on  to  the  creature  to  remain  as  long  as  the  wear  and 
tear  of  its  life  permits. 

The  most  curious  and  interesting  amulet  is  made  of  silver, 
and  called  the  cimaruta,  —  a  sprig  of  rue,  —  which  combines 
seven  different  symbols.  The  rue  was  called  the  "  herb  o' 
grace  "  in  the  old  days,  and  various  magical  qualities  were 
ascribed  to  it,  as  in  "  Paradise  Lost,"  when  the  Archangel 
Michael  wished  to  have  Adam  clear  of  sight :  "  Then  purged 
with  euphrasy  and  rue  the  visual  nerve,  for  he  had  much  to 
see."  Rue  was  used  in  England  as  a  brush  from  which  to 
sprinkle  holy  water  in  the  benediction  of  houses ;  it  was 
held  in  the  hand  by  criminals  when  executed,  and  hung  be- 
tween the  judge's  bench  and  the  prisoner's  bar  to  ward  off 
gaol-fever,  and  its  medicinal  properties  were  well  known  to 
midwives.  The  sprig  of  rue  may  be  said  to  make  the  foun- 
dation of  the  cimaruta;  and  combined  with  it  are  the  ser- 
pent, the  half-moon,  the  key,  the  heart,  the  hand,  and  the 
horn.  The  serpent,  which  has  symbolized  evil  for  many 
ages  and  peoples,  is  at  times  the  symbol  of  wisdom,  and 
again  of  JEsculapius  or  healing;  it  would  seem  that  it 
must  have  the  latter  quality  when  used  in  this  wonderful 
amulet.  The  half-moon  I  suppose  to  be  for  luck,  as  it  is 
all  over  the  world  and  with  ourselves,  when  we  courtesy  to 
it  and  endeavor  to  give  it  our  right  shoulder,  or  turn  our 
silver  over  as  we  see  it.  The  key  and  the  heart  are  sym- 
bolical of  prudence  and  affection ;  while  the  hand  grasping 
a  horn  —  which  frequently  makes  an  amulet  with  no  other 


228  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

combination  —  symbolizes  strength  holding  fast  on  luck,  of 
which  the  horn  has  long  been  the  symbol. 

It  is  curious  to  note  that  not  one  of  these  emblems  is 
essentially  Christian.  Although  the  serpent  is  sometimes 
placed  beneath  the  feet  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  it  symbolized 
evil  in  the  earliest  ages;  and  though  the  key  is  now  given  to 
S.  Peter,  it  was  also  in  the  hands  of  Isis  and  Diana.  It  is 
probable  that  the  entire  form  of  this  amulet  is  an  absolute 
survival  from  ante-Christian  days.  Two  other  amulets  of 
similar  character — the  sirena,  the  siren,  and  the  cavallo 
marine,  or  sea-horse  —  are  much  in  favor  with  Neapolitan 
peasants.  As  Naples  was  founded  by  and  bore  the  name 
of  the  siren  Parthenope,  according  to  the  precious  old 
legends,  it  is  fitting  that  her  likeness  should  be  thought  to 
protect  one  from  evil ;  and  the  figure  of  a  crowned  siren 
who  holds  her  two  fishy  tails  in  her  hands  so  that  the  fins 
on  the  ends  are  above  her  head,  while  five  little  tinkling 
bells  hang  beneath  her,  is  a  representation  that  suggests 
Parthenope  with  all  needful  exactness. 

The  sea-horse  amulet  —  cavallo  marino  —  is  also  a  relic 
of  past  ages,  since  one  was  found  at  Herculaneum,  and  the 
horse  itself  is  frequently  repeated  in  the  pictures  at  Pompeii. 
There  are  amulets  shaped  like  the  sea-horse  alone,  with  its 
accustomed  fish-tail,  that  are  almost  exact  reproductions 
of  the  little  sea-horse  so  numerous  on  the  coast  of  Baia3. 
Other  amulets  have  winged  horses  with  little  bells  hung 
below,  as  in  the  sirena  ;  and  the  most  elaborate  of  all  have 
a  siren  seated  on  two  winged  horses:  the  heads  being 
turned  to  the  right  and  left,  the  two  backs  coming  together, 
afford  a  sort  of  cradle-seat  to  the  goddess,  the  wings  rising 
on  each  side  of  her;  she  holds  her  tails  high  above  her 
head,  as  usual,  and  a  bell  is  hung  in  the  mouth  of  each 
horse,  while  a  third  is  suspended  from  the  bottom  of  the 
amulet.  When  made  by  skilful  workmen,  these  amulets 
are  very  beautiful. 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  229 

The  amulets  of  the  very  poor  are  not  expensive  ;  a  piece 
of  rock  salt  is  often  tied  on  the  neck  of  a  child,  and  the 
palms  blessed  at  Easter  time  are  burned  to  ward  off  evil. 
Whenever  Vesuvius  is  in  eruption,  every  possible  amulet  is 
in  request ;  and  the  people,  kneeling  in  the  streets,  recite 
litanies  with  fervor,  while  the  clergy  carry  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  and  sacred  relics  through  the  city.  But  the 
moment  that  the  danger  is  thought  to  be  over,  the  usual 
confusion  prevails ;  the  Babel  of  singing,  quarrelling,  curs- 
ing, the  fighting,  gambling,  and  dancing,  are  resumed  with 
new  zest,  in  consequence  of  the  time  that  has  been  lost. 

Another  curious  custom  of  the  Neapolitans,  which  is 
observed  in  Lent,  is  frequently  noticed  by  strangers.  A 
little  figure  hangs  on  a  wire  suspended  across  the  street  or 
alley,  from  the  upper  windows.  In  the  figure  are  stuck 
seven  feathers,  —  six  black  and  one  white.  This  figure 
indicates  that  the  inhabitants  have  had  no  dispensation  in 
fulfilling  their  Lenten  duties  ;  each  Sunday  a  black  feather 
is  pulled  out,  the  white  one  remaining  until  Easter,  and  in 
the  end  the  little  figure  is  filled  with  explosives  and  blown 
to  atoms. 

The  gestures  of  the  Neapolitans  make  a  language  almost 
as  expressive  as  speech,  and  much  has  been  written  of  it. 
The  most  common  gesture  is  that  in  which  the  hand  is  in 
the  position  of  the  amulet  already  described.  That  it  has 
long  been  in  use  is  proved  by  its  representation  in  Pom- 
peian  pictures.  The  modern  Neapolitan  uses  this  gesture 
incessantly :  first  and  foremost,  when  he  sees  a  person 
whom  he  believes  might,  could,  would,  or  should  cast  the 
evil  eye  on  him ;  if  he  receives  a  message,  letter,  or  tele- 
gram that  disturbs  him.  If  a  slight  accident  happens,  he 
makes  it  at  the  person  who  happens  to  be  nearest  to  him ; 
or  he  makes  it  if  he  is  jostled,  or  if  any  one  steps  on  his 
toe,  or  even  if  he  sees  a  person  looking  at  him  in  the  street. 
Originally  this  gesture  was  insulting ;  but  now,  except  when 


230  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

one  is  angry,  it  is  simply  a  custom,  and  used  much  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  priest  or  nun  makes  the  sign  of  the 
cross.  Stamer,  in  his  "  Dolce  Napoli,"  thus  defines  some 
signs  of  the  gesture  language :  — 

"  An  outward  wave  of  the  hand,  adieu ;  an  inward,  come ; 
a  downward,  stop.  The  thumb  pointed  backwards,  look ;  to 
the  lips,  with  a  slight  toss  of  the  head,  drinking ;  passed  across 
the  forehead  as  though  wiping  away  perspiration,  fatigue.  The 
index  finger  drawn  across  the  mouth,  anger ;  across  the  clenched 
teeth,  defiance ;  rapping  the  closed  fingers  against  the  lips, 
eating ;  passing  the  extended  index  and  thumb  in  front  of  the 
mouth,  hunger ;  twisting  the  end  of  the  mustache,  is  n't  it 
good  to  eat ;  a  backward  wave  of  the  hand  beneath  the  chin 
and  a  simultaneous  toss  of  the  head,  not  at  any  price,  no,  noth- 
ing ;  closing  the  fingers  consecutively  with  a  drawing  motion 
of  the  hand,  thievery ;  thumb  and  forefinger  rubbed  together, 
money,  as  with  us ;  a  prolonged  shrug  of  the  shoulders  and 
both  arms  drawn  back,  gesture  deprecatory ;  the  open  fingers 
of  both  hands  crossed  in  front  of  the  face  to  represent  bars, 
prison  ;  and  so  on  ad  infinitum." 

But  the  most  wonderful  effect  of  gesture  is  seen  in  the 
dance  of  the  tarantella,  which  originated  in  the  old  belief 
that  the  bite  of  the  tarantula  caused  a  peculiar  madness 
that  could  only  be  cured  by  music  and  dancing.  The 
ancient  customs,  of  which  the  dance  is  a  remnant,  were 
very  interesting,  and  remind  one  of  the  Bacchic  festivals. 
An  account  of  this  ceremony  is  given  by  Mr.  Keppel 
Craven  :  — 

"  Musicians,  expert  in  the  art,  are  summoned,  and  the 
patient,  attired  in  white,  and  gaudily  adorned  with  various 
colored  ribands,  vine  leaves,  and  trinkets  of  all  kinds,  is  led 
out,  holding  a  drawn  sword  in  her  hand,  on  a  terrace,  in  the 
midst  of  her  sympathizing  friends ;  she  sits  with  her  head 
reclining  on  her  hands,  while  the  musical  performers  try  the 
different  chords,  keys,  tones,  and  tunes  that  may  arrest  her 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  231 

wandering  attention,  or  suit  her  taste  or  caprice.  .  .  .  The 
suflerer  usually  rises  to  some  melancholy  melody  in  a  minor 
key,  and  slowly  follows  its  movements  by  her  steps ;  it  is  then 
that  the  musician  has  an  opportunity  of  displaying  his  skill  by 
imperceptibly  accelerating  the  time,  till  it  falls  into  the  merry 
measure  of  the  pizzica,  which  is,  in  fact,  that  of  the  tarantella 
or  national  dance,  only  that  in  the  composition  of  the  tarentine 
air  greater  variety,  and  a  more  polished  and  even  scientific 
style,  is  observable.  She  continues  dancing  to  various  succes- 
sions of  these  tunes  as  long  as  her  breath  and  strength  allow, 
occasionally  selecting  one  of  the  bystanders  as  her  partner,  and 
sprinkling  her  face  with  cold  water,  a  large  vessel  of  which  is 
always  placed  near  at  hand.  While  she  rests  at  times,  the 
guests  invited  relieve  her  by  dancing  by  turns  after  the  fashion 
of  the  country ;  and  when,  overcome  by  resistless  lassitude  and 
faintness,  she  determines  to  give  over  for  the  day,  she  takes 
the  pail  or  jar  of  water,  and  pours  its  contents  over  her  person 
from  her  head  downwards.  This  is  the  signal  for  her  friends 
to  undress  her  and  convey  her  to  bed  ;  after  which  the  rest  of 
the  company  endeavor  to  further  her  recovery  by  devouring  a 
substantial  repast,  which  is  always  prepared  for  the  occasion." 

The  present  popular  dance,  which  is  the  outcome  of  the 
older  and  called  by  the  same  name,  is  most  exciting  and 
interesting.  Stamer's  account  of  it  reproduces  so  per- 
fectly what  1  have  seen,  and  is  so  concisely  put,  that  I 
will  quote  it :  — 

uThe  tarantella  is  a  choreographic  love-story,  the  two 
dancers  representing  an  enamored  swain  and  his  mistress.  It 
is  the  old  theme,  *  the  quarrels  of  lovers  are  the  renewal  of 
love.'  Enraptured  gaze,  coy  side-look ;  gallant  advance,  timid 
retrocession ;  impassioned  declaration,  supercilious  rejection ; 
piteous  supplication,  softening  hesitation  ;  worldly  goods'  obla- 
tion, gracious  acceptation ;  frantic  jubilation,  maidenly  resigna- 
tion. Petting,  wooing,  billing,  cooing.  Jealous  accusation, 
sharp  recrimination ;  manly  expostulation,  shrewish  aggrava- 
tion ;  angry  threat,  summary  dismissal.  Fuming  on  one  side, 


232  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

pouting  on  the  other.  Reaction,  approximation,  explanation, 
exoneration,  reconciliation,  osculation,  winding  up  with  a  pas 
de  circonstance,  expressive  of  confidence  re-established  and  joy 
unbounded." 

The  superstitious  nature  of  the  Neapolitan  is  one  quality 
—  and  a  very  important  one  —  that  helps  to  make  him  a 
gambler.  It  is  curious  to  note  how,  even  among  the  most 
enlightened  people,  superstitions  are  connected  with  games 
of  chance  ;  it  has  even  been  laid  down  as  a  rule  that  a  man 
who  is  free  from  superstition  cannot  be  a  gambler.  Be 
this  as  it  may,  Neapolitans  are  eminently  superstitious  and 
eminent  gamblers. 

In  the  clubs  of  the  better  classes,  the  games  correspond 
to  those  of  like  clubs  elsewhere,  except  that  the  stakes  are 
higher.  The  games  of  the  middle  classes  are  played  in 
restaurants  principally.  They  dislike  billiards  on  account 
of  the  exercise  required  ;  but  they  constantly  play  various 
games  of  cards,  and  are  fond  of  dominos.  Their  queer 
little  packs  of  forty  cards  are  the  source  of  more  pleasure 
and  more  quarrels  than  any  other  equally  small  and 
inexpensive  object  could  afford.  No  Neapolitan  could 
imagine  playing  a  game  without  a  stake ;  and  this  stake  is 
naturally  the  cause  of  his  intense  emotions  in  his  play,  — 
emotions  which  frequently  lead  to  serious  and  even  fatal 
results. 

Groups  of  laborers  who  have  eaten  their  midday  meal 
play  cards  in  the  street,  and  both  men  and  boys  play 
morra ;  and  although  this  latter  game  is  played  with  the 
fingers  only,  it  is  the  most  exciting  method  of  gambling 
imaginable.  It  is  less  common  now  than  formerly,  but 
twenty-five  years  ago  the  streets  were  literally  full  of 
morra-players.  I  have  seen  groups  of  boys,  ragged, 
dirty,  and  doubtless  hungry,  so  engaged  in  morra  that  no 
other  thought  occurred  to  them  for  hours ;  and  the  num- 
ber and  fierceness  of  their  quarrels  was  almost  beyond 


NEAPOLITAN  LITE.  233 

belief.  Bowls  is  another  game  played  in  the  streets  in 
winter  for  stakes ;  and  even  some  serious  business  mat- 
ters are  customarily  decided  by  chance,  such  as  selecting 
a  workman  from  a  number  of  applicants.  In  this  case 
the  candidates  stand  in  a  ring,  and  at  a  given  signal  throw 
down  their  hands  with  some  of  the  fingers  extended,  each 
one  calling  out  the  number.  The  would-be  employer  adds 
the  number  of  the  extended  fingers  together,  and  then 
counts  the  men  round  and  round  the  ring  until  he  reaches 
a  man  counted  by  the  number  that  has  been  so  singularly 
chosen,  and  he  must  be  taken  for  the  required  service. 
This  is  more  satisfactory  to  the  workmen  than  it  would 
be  to  have  one  of  their  number  selected  for  his  excellence  ; 
but  the  employer  runs  the  risk  of  getting  the  least  desir- 
able man  among  them. 

Lamentable  as  the  universal  gambling  is,  it  is  difficult 
to  conceive  of  a  plan  by  which  it  can  be  lessened  while  the 
government  is  the  chief  promoter  of  the  vice  by  means  of 
its  authorized  lottery,  no  others  being  allowed.  The  State 
also  protects  itself  by  refusing  to  pay  up  more  than  six 
million  francs,  —  a  safe  proviso,  as  the  prizes  never  reach 
that  sum.  Tickets  are  sold  as  low  as  two  cents,  and  the 
prizes  may  be  from  fourteen  to  sixty  thousand  times  the 
price  of  the  ticket.  The  amount  of  superstition  and  curious 
calculation  which  enters  into  the  choice  of  a  number  is 
amazing.  A  dictionary  of  numbers  is  extensively  used, 
and  every  circumstance  of  daily  life  is  taken  into  account. 
Does  one  se'e  a  carriage  overturned,  he  will  find  a  number 
for  the  accident ;  another  for  the  horses,  whether  they  run 
or  stand  still ;  another  for  the  carriage  if  empty  ;  and  still 
another  if  it  had  passengers ;  and  one  or  more  of  these 
numbers  will  be  selected  for  the  venture.  The  same 
method  is  followed  regarding  the  events  in  a  dream,  or 
any  important  public  occurrence,  such  as  an  earthquake, 
a  fire,  a  murder,  or  an  epidemic. 


234  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Some  Neapolitans  will  not  select  their  own  numbers,  but 
ask  a  monk,  because  monks  are  believed  to  be  very  lucky  ; 
or  they  consult  professional  cabalisti,  who  are  supposed  to 
know  all  that  one  wishes  by  some  magical  power.  The 
balance  in  the  lottery  account  is  always  in  favor  of  the 
government,  and  this  is  the  only  method  of  tax-paying  to 
which  the  Neapolitans  submit  cheerfully.  At  times,  how- 
ever, enormous  sums  are.  won  by  the  poorest  people ;  as 
was  the  case  when  the  cholera  broke  out  in  1884.  The 
dictionary  number  for  this  emergency  was  bought  by 
thousands,  and  happening  to  turn  out  a  prize  number,  it 
made  a  heavy  strain  on  the  government.  The  uncon- 
trollable passion  for  the  lottery  causes  no  end  of  wrong- 
doing and  theft  among  the  working-classes.  The  prizes 
are  drawn  on  Saturday,  and  if  on  Friday  they  have  not 
the  money  for  the  chances  they  wish  to  buy,  they  will  take 
almost  any  means  to  get  it.  If  they  steal  it,  they  say  a 
prayer  for  their  success  at  the  same  moment,  and  are 
sanguine  that  the  prize  will  enable  them  to  return  what 
they  have  stolen.  If  they  cannot  steal  the  money,  they 
frequently  pawn  objects  belonging  to  others,  and,  in  short, 
are  very  clever  in  inventing  methods  by  which  to  get  the 
coveted  tickets. 

The  drawing  of  the  Tombola,  or  Lotto,  occurs  about  four 
o'clock  on  Saturday  afternoon  in  the  Via  Mezzo-cannone, 
and  the  winning  numbers  are  posted  where  all  may  see 
them.  The  faces  of  the  winners  are  bright  and  joyous ; 
they  are  pleased  that  the  method  of  their  choice  proved  a 
wise  one ;  but  the  expressions  on  the  faces  of  the  losers 
are  a  sad  and  depressing  study.  Poor,  half-clothed  crea- 
tures, whose  appearance  shows  how  meagrely  they  are  fed, 
have  lost,  perhaps,  their  all ;  they  tear  up  their  tickets, 
throw  them  on  the  ground,  and  move  away,  doubtless 
already  planning  how  they  can  save  even  one  penny  in 
the  six  succeeding  days. 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  235 

Statistics  show  that  the  government  made  more  than 
ninety  million  dollars  in  profits  from  the  lottery  system 
in  all  Italy  from  1871  to  1887.  When  we  remember  that 
a  large  portion  of  this  was  paid  by  the  very  poor  of  a 
country  in  which  poverty  is  at  its  worst,  it  is  a  frightful 
comment  on  the  system.  Thoughtful  Italians  feel  this  ; 
but  there  are  two  questions  which  they  have  not  the  wis- 
dom to  answer,  —  how  to  abolish  the  lottery  without  ex- 
citing a  revolution,  and  after  that,  how  to  make  up  the 
deficiency  in  the  revenue. 

Horse-races  have  not  been  customary  in  Italy  until 
recently.  Those  which  occur  at  Naples  on  Tuesday  and 
Thursday  in  Easter  week  are  popular  festivals,  and  present 
a  fine  spectacle.  The  great  race  is  held  in  five  different 
cities  alternately,  and  so  comes  to  Naples  only  once  in  five 
years.  When  this  or  any  other  race  is  held  on  the  Campo 
di  Marte,  the  procession  of  carriages  filled  with  gentlemen 
and  ladies,  the  last  in  gorgeous  toilets,  makes  an  imposing 
appearance  as  it  passes  up  the  Toledo.  But  horse-racing 
here  does  not  seem  quite  at  home  ;  it  is  not  a  "  custom  of 
the  country,"  but  an  importation,  and  although  a  good 
amount  of  betting  is  done,  there  is  no  such  apparent  enjoy- 
ment as  one  sees  at  the  Derby  or  the  Grand  Prix. 

That  Neapolitans  adore  everything  that  is  or  is  near 
being  dramatic  is  proved  by  the  crowds  who  listen  to  the 
public  readers ;  and  when  a  really  gifted  cantastorie  recites 
a  favorite  poem  and  makes  his  impressive  gesticulations, 
his  hearers  are  filled  with  delight.  How  much  more,  then, 
when  to  the  charm  of  the  story  and  its  recitation  is  added 
the  illustrative  action  of  the  marionettes  or  puppets  which 
are  so  wonderfully  managed  by  the  showmen  of  Italy ! 
Punch  and  Judy  and  other  plays  thus  given  are  too  well 
known  to  require  notice ;  and  fortunately  some  of  the  so- 
called  religious  plays  that  were  performed  at  Christmas 
and  Easter  are  less  popular  than  formerly,  since  many  of 


236  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

them  were  far  from  reverent  or  reputable  in  spirit.  But 
if  one  can  endure  disagreeable  odors,  the  marionette 
theatres  in  the  Strada  Foria  and  on  the  Marinella  are  very 
curious. 

Wherever  the  Neapolitan  appears  as  an  actor,  he  has  the 
grace  and  spontaneity  so  universal  in  Naples,  especially  in 
the  Naples  of  the  poor.  These  people  habitually  use  ges- 
tures, facial  expressions,- and  a  dramatic  mode  of  speech 
that  would  make  the  fortune  of  the  so-called  trained  actors, 
who,  in  years  of  study,  fail  to  acquire  the  dramatic  power 
which  is  the  birthright  of  the  Neapolitan. 

Naples  is,  par  excellence,  a  city  of  festivals.  The  two 
which  may  be  called  national  are  the  King's  Birthday, 
March  14,  and  the  festival  of  the  Constitution,  on  the 
first  Sunday  in  June.  These  are  celebrated  by  military 
parades,  and  the  illumination  of  all  public  buildings,  and 
many  others,  at  evening.  These  festas  correspond  almost 
precisely  to  patriotic  celebrations  elsewhere. 

The  annual  festivals  which  are  more  or  less  ecclesiasti- 
cal begin  with  that  of  S.  Anthony  Abbot,  on  January 
17,  when  the  animals  are  taken  to  the  church  of  their 
patron  to  be  blessed.  They  are  decorated  with  ribbons, 
amulets,  and  other  ornaments,  and  after  the  benediction  are 
walked  around  the  court  of  the  church  three  times.  This 
ceremony  is  continued  on  every  Sunday  until  Lent. 

The  Carnival  is  not  celebrated  regularly.  "When  it 
occurs,  the  people  make  merry  in  the  restaurants  of  the 
suburbs  on  the  afternoon  of  Ash  Wednesday;  and  the 
Toledo  and  the  vicinity  of  the  Villa  Nazionale  are  the  most 
advantageous  places  for  seeing  whatever  spectacle  occurs 
in  Naples. 

On  Maundy  Thursday  the  shops  on  the  Toledo  are 
decorated  and  brilliantly  lighted  until  a  late  hour  in  the 
evening;  no  carriages  are  permitted  to  enter  the  street, 
which  is  thronged  with  people  making  a  promenade  called 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  237 

Lo  Struscio,  from  the  rustling  of  silk  garments.  This 
peculiar  observance  is  also  continued  on  the  morning  of 
Good  Friday. 

On  Ascension  Day  an  interesting  festival  occurs  at 
Scafati,  near  Pompeii,  called  that  of  the  Madonna  del 
Bagno ;  and  on  Whitmonday  the  return  of  the  pilgrims 
from  Monte  Yergine  is  a  remarkable  sight. 

The  shrine  of  Monte  Yergine  is  near  Avellino,  about 
twenty  miles  from  Naples,  and  is  annually  visited  by 
seventy  or  eighty  thousand  pilgrims,  a  quarter  of  them,  at 
least,  going  from  Naples.  The  convent  of  Monte  Yergine 
was  erected  in  1119  on  the  site  of  a  temple  of  Cybele, 
some  fragments  of  which  are  now  seen  in  the  convent. 
Marriage  contracts  in  Naples  frequently  have  a  clause 
which  binds  the  husband  to  take  his  wife  on  this  pil- 
grimage annually,  and  clubs  are  formed  to  which  each 
subscriber  pays  a  weekly  sum  in  order  to  lay  aside 
money  enough  for  the  cost  of  this  journey,  which  re- 
quires three  days.  At  the  shrine,  to  which  many  of  the 
devotees  make  the  final  ascent  on  their  knees,  crowds 
of  pilgrims  assemble  from  all  parts  of  the  old  Neapolitan 
kingdom.  Here  the  national  costumes  and  the  curious 
ornaments  of  the  peasants  are  seen  to  great  advantage. 
The  heads  of  both  sexes  are  decorated  with  flowers  and 
fruits,  and  many  also  carry  garlands  and  fruits  on  long 
poles.  Those  who  ride  have  pictures  of  the  Madonna  and 
other  ornaments  for  their  carriages,  while  the  horses  are 
decorated  with  gay  ribbons  and  plumes.  Returning,  the 
Neapolitans  visit  the  sanctuary  of  the  Madonna  dell'  Arco 
at  Nola,  where  they  dance  the  tarantella  and  sing  their 
national  songs.  From  this  point  to  Naples  they  present 
the  appearance  of  a  merry  Bacchanalian  rather  than  a 
Christian  procession.  At  Naples  they  are  welcomed  by 
great  crowds  of  people,  who  assemble  in  the  streets 
bordering  the  harbor. 


238  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIKONS. 

Formerly  the  relics  of  S.  Januarius  were  at  Monte 
Vergine,  but  the  sacred  objects  now  there  are  scarcely  of 
importance  enough  to  demand  this  pilgrimage  were  it  not 
an  old  custom  which  is  continued  from  love  of  it.  The 
view  from  Monte  Vergine  is  glorious ;  seaward  it  extends 
to  the  bays  of  Naples  and  Salerno  and  along  the  coast  to 
Caeta,  while  the  snowy  Abruzzi  and  the  neighboring  villages 
afford  an  interesting  prospect  inland.  The  spectacle  of  the 
ascending  pilgrims,  winding  up  through  all  the  roads  and 
paths  on  all  sides,  is  very  impressive,  especially  at  night, 
when  thousands  of  them  carry  torches ;  and  their  chants 
are  heard  while  they  are  still  far  distant. 

The  observances  of  Corpus  Christi,  Easter,  and  Christ- 
mas are  now  much  the  same  in  Naples  as  in  other  cities. 
In  the  churches  at  Easter  there  are  representations  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  as  is  customary  elsewhere.  Christmas  is 
heralded  by  the  Zampognari  from  the  Abruzzi,  who  still 
play  hymns  and  carols  on  their  bagpipes,  before  the  images 
of  the  Madonna,  though  in  lesser  numbers  than  formerly. 
The  churches  have  the  presepe,  and  retain  it  until  the  day 
of  the  Purification. 

The  festival  of  Capodimonte  occurs  on  August  15,  when 
the  grounds  of  the  palace  are  open  to  the  public,  and  are 
greatly  enjoyed  by  the  people,  who  flock  there  in  large 
numbers.  The  Fishermen's  Festival  at  S.  Lucia,  on  the 
last  Sunday  in  August,  presents  a  novel  scene,  and  affords 
an  interesting  opportunity  to  observe  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  the  people.  The  festival  of  Piedigrotta,  on  Sep- 
tember 8,  has  lost  its  importance,  and  requires  no  special 
notice.  The  Ottobrate  occur  on  Sundays  and  Thursdays 
in  October,  and  are  little  more  than  excursions  made  with 
gayly  trimmed  horses  and  carriages,  or  in  humbler  ways  by 
the  poorer  classes.  It  is  on  the  occasions  of  the  Ottobrate 
that  the  new  wines  of  the  year  are  tasted  while  still 
fermenting. 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  239 

On  All  Souls'  Day,  November  2,  and  even  more  on  its 
eve,  November  1,  the  cemeteries  are  crowded.  Services 
are  held  in  the  chapels,  and  the  graves  are  decorated  ac- 
cording to  the  custom  all  over  Italy ;  but  there  are  some 
observances  at  Naples  that  I  have  not  seen  elsewhere. 
One  of  these,  in  the  burial-ground  of  the  poor,  —  Cimitero 
della  Piet&,  —  is  the  exhumation  of  bodies  that  have  been 
buried  eighteen  mouths ;  the  bones  of  those  whose  friends 
can  afford  the  cost  are  placed  in  a  niche  and  walled  up :  the 
others  are  thrown  into  a  large  cistern  outside  the  cemetery. 
A  similar  method  of  burial  is  in  use  in  the  Campo  Santo 
Nuovo,  where  guilds  and  societies  have  erected  what  may 
be  described  as  small  temples,  in  the  lower  part  of  which 
bodies  are  buried,  and  after  eighteen  months  the  bones  are 
placed  in  niches  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  temple.  This 
most  sickening  operation  may  be  seen  very  frequently, 
especially  on  Sunday  afternoons. 

Another  singular  and  almost  equally  disagreeable  cus- 
tom in  the  Campo  Santo  Nuovo  is  that  of  displaying,  on 
All  Souls'  Eve,  certain  bodies  that  have  been  petrified. 
These  poor  remnants  of  humanity  are  dressed  with  ele- 
gance, and  the  family  chapels  in  which  they  are  placed 
are  decorated  with  rich  hangings  in  black  and  gold,  and 
masses  of  fresh,  lovely  flowers ;  they  are  brilliantly  lighted 
and  guarded  by  servants,  or  even  by  members  of  the  family, 
who  spend  the  entire  day  there,  while  the  public  are  at 
liberty  to  observe  this  as  they  might  any  other  curious 
spectacle  in  a  place  less  sacred  than  this  should  be.  For- 
tunately, while  many  bodies  are  thus  prepared,  the  exhibi- 
tion of  them  is  less  frequent  than  formerly. 

The  great  distinctive  ecclesiastical  function  at  Naples, 
the  liquefaction  of  the  blood  of  S.  Januarius,  occurs  three 
times  a  year,  —  on  the  first  Saturday  in  May,  September  19, 
and  December  16,  —  and  is  repeated  on  the  six  days  follow- 
ing each  of  these  dates.  These  are  the  most  notable  days 


240  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

of  the  year,  as  it  is  believed  that  the  welfare  of  Naples  and 
its  inhabitants  depends  on  this  miracle. 

S.  Januarius,  —  or  Gennaro,  —  now  the  patron  saint  of 
Naples,  was  a  bishop  of  Beneventum,  who  came  with  six 
of  his  companions  to  comfort  the  Christians  of  Naples  in 
the  reign  of  Diocletian.  This  emperor  condemned  him  to 
be  burned,  but  angels  rescued  him  from  the  flames  ;  he 
was  then  tied  to  the  imperial  chariot  and  taken  to  Poz- 
zuoli,  where  he  was  thrown  to  the  beasts  of  the  amphi- 
theatre, who  did  him  no  harm ;  finally,  he  was  beheaded  at 
Solfatara,  September  19,  305.  A  Christian  woman  pre- 
served the  blood  which  flowed  from  the  head  of  the  saint 
in  two  phials,  which  she  gave  to  the  Bishop  S.  Severo  in 
the  reign  of  Constantino.  As  the  bishop  took  the  phials 
in  his  hand,  the  blood  liquefied.  There  is  no  record  of  the 
miracle  from  that  time  until  the  eleventh  century,  during 
which  interval  the  phials  and  relics  of  the  saint  are  said 
to  have  been  hidden  for  safety.  In  the  ninth  century  they 
were  removed  to  Beneventum ;  but  Frederick  II.  com- 
manded them  to  be  taken  to  Monte  Yergine,  where  they 
were  discovered  near  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  and 
deposited  in  the  Cathedral  of  Naples,  in  which  the  splendid 
Capella  del  Tesoro  has  been  erected  in  honor  of  these 
sacred  relics. 

The  tabernacle  which  contains  the  miraculous  blood  is 
secured  by  three  locks,  the  keys  being  kept  by  two  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Church  and  one  of  the  city,  all  of  whom 
must  be  present  when  it  is  opened,  or  be  represented  by 
authorized  substitutes. 

In  order  to  see  the  whole  ceremony  well,  one  must  be 
within  the  altar-rails,  as  the  chapel  is  so  crowded  that  but 
few  people  actually  see  the  miracle  ;  others  are  obliged  to 
believe  the  word  of  the  priest.  On  the  left  of  the  altar- 
rails,  a  disreputable,  dirty  rabble  is  stationed,  called  "  the 
relatives  of  S.  Gennaro."  Why  thus  honored,  I  have  been 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  241 

unable  to  discover ;  but  they  take  as  many  liberties  as  they 
could  if  they  were  his  nearest  relatives,  and  his  family  a 
very  unpleasant  one.  If  the  miracle  proceeds  to  their 
liking,  they  praise  the  saint  as  heartily  as  they  curse  him 
if  he  disappoints  them  or  takes  too  much  time  for  the 
liquefaction ;  taken  altogether,  they  make  a  revolting  part 
of  the  spectacle. 

At  the  appointed  hour  the  great,  solid  silver  box  con- 
taining the  relics  is  opened.  A  silver-gilt  bust  of  S.  Janu- 
arius  is  placed  on  the  altar ;  a  mitre  is  put  on  the  head, 
and  a  splendid  jewelled  collar  clasped  around  the  neck. 
The  reliquary  containing  the  blood  is  reverently  taken 
from  its  case ;  it  resembles  a  small  carriage  lamp,  inside 
the  glass  of  which  two  small  bottles  are  seen,  partly  filled 
with  a  red,  coagulated  substance  which  does  not  move 
when  turned  over.  This  reliquary  is  secured  by  a  waist- 
band to  the  officiating  priest,  while  a  chain  from  this  band, 
attached  to  the  reliquary,  permits  its  being  moved  freely. 
Prayers  are  constantly  repeated ;  and  the  priest,  holding 
the  reliquary  where  it  can  be  plainly  seen,  —  by  the  light 
of  a  large  candle  held  by  an  acolyte,  — says  in  a  loud 
voice,  fi  duro,  —  "  It  is  solid."  He  turns  it  up  and  down, 
again  and  again,  while  the  kneeling  congregation  pray  for 
the  miracle.  Still  the  priest  repeats  fi  duro,  until  the 
excitement  becomes  intense,  and  the  relatives  of  the  saint 
are  noisy  and  demonstrative  in  their  prayers  and  their 
criticisms  of  his  obstinacy  in  thus  keeping  them  waiting. 
They  even  call  him  names,  such  as  "  Ugly  yellow  face," 
referring  to  the  color  of  the  bust.  But  sooner  or  later  the 
priest  calls  loudly,  Muove,  —  "  It  moves,"  —  and  the  news 
passes  through  the  cathedral  and  the  city  like  wild-fire. 
Formerly  cannon  were  fired  from  the  forts ;  but  this  custom 
has  been  discontinued,  and  the  soldiers  are  no  longer 
turned  out  in  honor  of  the  miracle. 

16 


242  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

After  the  liquefaction  the  kissing  of  the  reliquary  begins, 
and  continues  throughout  the  day.  After  the  seven  days 
are  passed,  the  relics  are  again  put  in  their  magnificent 
box,  —  a  gift,  I  have  been  told,  from  the  present  king,  —  the 
three  keys  are  turned  in  their  locks  and  taken  away,  not 
to  be  used  again  until  the  next  day  fixed  for  this  ceremony 
to  be  repeated,  except  in  case  of  some  great  danger  to 
Naples,  when  these  precious  relics  may  even  be  carried 
through  the  streets.  When  S.  Januarius  is  represented 
as  the  patron  saint  of  Naples,  Vesuvius  is  seen  in  the 
background,  as  he  is  believed  to  have  stayed  the  streams 
of  lava  and  saved  the  city. 

Naturally  this  saint  is  the  chief  of  all  saints  to  the  Nea- 
politans ;  but  he  is  followed,  at  a  greater  or  less  distance, 
by  an  almost  innumerable  host.  Saint  worship  in  Naples 
exceeds  that  cult  in  other  parts  of  Italy.  Every  separate 
precinct  celebrates  the  day  of  its  saint,  and  so  many  ex- 
plosives have  been  used  on  these  occasions  that  the  au- 
thorities have  attempted  to  modify  their  customs,  and 
have  partly  succeeded  within  the  city ;  but  in  the  suburbs 
the  feste  are  still  in  full  force.  An  image  of  the 
saint  who  is  honored  is  carried  through  the  town  dressed 
in  a  gorgeous  manner;  and  at  intervals,  on  the  route  of 
the  procession,  explosives  are  fired  which  sound  like  the 
boom  of  a  cannon. 

One  would  think  that  these  public  festivals  are  numer- 
ous enough  to  satisfy  all  possible  desires  in  this  direction ; 
but  the  Neapolitans  are  of  another  opinion,  and  constantly 
celebrate  the  days  of  the  family  saints  —  each  man,  woman, 
and  child  thus  having  &festa  of  his  or  her  own.  On  these 
occasions  fire-crackers  and  other  small  explosives  are 
used ;  and  so  much  is  the  noise  of  these  prized,  and  so 
necessary  are  they  thought  to  be  in  the  propitiation  of 
saints,  that  they  are  even  taken  into  the  churches  and 


NEAPOLITAN  LIFE.  243 

fired  off  at  the  most  solemn  moment  of  the  service,  such 
as  the  Elevation  of  the  Host,  or  the  Gloria.  This  is  a 
delight  to  Neapolitan  congregations;  their  impulsive  na- 
tures and  religious  enthusiasm  —  which  could  scarcely  be 
exceeded  —  seem  to  find  appropriate  expression  in  these 
tumultuous  methods. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

NEAPOLITAN  ART  AND  LETTERS. 

WE  have  already  spoken  at  some  length  of  the  early 
architecture  of  Naples,  which  was  so  largely  in- 
fluenced by  that  of  the  East  that  it  may  be  fitly  termed 
Italian-Byzantine.  So  few  traces  of  it  remain  that  it  is 
almost  unknown,  and  the  Saracenic  features  which  the 
Normans  added  to  the  older  edifices  and  introduced  in  the 
new,  after  their  conquest  in  the  middle  of  the  eleventh 
century,  may  be  said  to  have  put  an  end  to  the  Italian- 
Byzantine  style  in  its  purity. 

The  beauty  of  this  architecture  was  in  its  ornamentation 
rather  than  in  its  form  or  plan  of  arrangement.  The 
cathedral  of  S.  Nicolo  at  Bari  is  probably  the  best  exist- 
ing example  of  this  earliest  Neapolitan  art.  No  perfect 
models  of  the  Norman  edifices  are  known  to  me,  but  ruins 
of  those  overthrown  by  earthquakes  still  remain,  like  those 
of  the  abbey  of  S.  Trinit£,  founded  by  Roger  of  Sicily  at 
Mileto. 

After  the  advent  of  the  Angevine  kings  the  architecture 
of  Naples  may  be  called  Gothic,  although  the  Suabian  rulers 
had  doubtless  introduced  the  German  pointed  style  to  some 
extent.  Our  present  purpose,  however,  is  but  to  speak  of 
the  architects  who  were  natives  of  the  Neapolitan  penin- 
sula, of  whom  we  shall  find  so  small  a  number  who 
achieved  a  name  in  this  art  that  we  shall  clearly  recog- 
nize the  debt  of  Naples  to  foreign  architects. 

After  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  rulers 
of  Naples  employed  architects  from  other  parts  of  Italy,  to 


NEAPOLITAN  ART  AND  LETTERS.  245 

whom  the  Neapolitan  artists  .were  simple  assistants.  Co- 
simo  Fansaga,  of  Bergamo,  settled  at  Naples,  and  his  name 
is  associated  with  churches,  altars,  palaces,  doorways,  and 
staircases.  In  this  latter  specialty  Ferdinando  Sanfelice, 
born  at  Naples  in  1675,  acquired  much  fame ;  but  I  know 
of  no  remaining  example  of  his  much  praised  geometric 
and  double  staircases. 

Luigi  Vanvitelli  (1700-1773),  born  at  Naples  of  a  Dutch 
family,  after  studying  in  other  cities  of  Italy,  was  sum- 
moned by  Carlo  Borbone  to  build  the  palace  of  Caserta, 
which  is  his  masterpiece.  Vanvitelli  could  scarcely  have 
received  such  a  commission  in  the  days  of  really  great 
architects ;  it  was  both  his  good  and  bad  fortune  to  live 
in  an  age  when  art  was  sadly  in  decadence,  as  is  proved 
by  the  tiresome  monotony  in  the  design  of  this  great 
palace,  which  afforded  the  finest  opportunity  in  architec- 
ture that  had  been  offered  to  any  master  in  Italy  since  the 
time  of  the  Renaissance.  In  short,  the  whole  story  of 
Neapolitan  architecture  is  well  summarized  by  Fergusson 
when  he  says,  in  speaking  of  Italian  art, — 

"  During  the  fifteenth  century  it  was  original,  appropriate, 
and  grand  ;  during  the  sixteenth  it  became  correct  and  elegant, 
though  too  often  also  tinctured  with  pedantry ;  and  in  the 
seventeenth  it  broke  out  into  caprice  and  affectation,  till  it 
became  as  bizarre  as  it  was  tasteless.  During  the  eighteenth 
century  it  sank  down  to  a  uniform  level  of  timid  mediocrity, 
as  devoid  of  life  as  it  is  of  art.  In  the  present  century  it  has 
been,  if  anything,  French.  But  now  that  the  country  is  again 
a  nation,  and  has  a  future  before  it,  it  remains  to  be  seen  what 
her  art  will  become.  If  the  Italians  are  capable  of  freedom 
and  of  national  greatness,  their  architecture  cannot  fail  to  be 
a  reflex  of  whatever  is  great  or  good  in  their  character  or 
institutions." 

As  in  architecture,  so  in  sculpture,  the  earliest  examples 
of  this  art  in  Neapolitan  territory  are  of  Byzantine  origin. 


246  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

The  celebrated  bronze  doors  of  Amalfi  were  made  by 
Byzantine  masters ;  those  of  Monte  Cassino  were  cast  at 
Constantinople ;  while  those  of  Atrani,  Salerno,  Benevento, 
and  Ravello  are  undoubtedly  of  like  origin.  All  these  fine 
bronzes  date  from  1000  to  1179. 

Little  can  be  said  with  assurance  concerning  the  remain- 
ing work  of  the  earliest  Neapolitan  sculptors.  Much  that 
was  attributed  to  them  half  a  century  ago  has  now  been 
identified  as  the  work  of  other  masters,  and  the  authorities 
in  art  sadly  disagree ;  and  since  men  wise  in  these  mat- 
ters have  failed  to  satisfy  themselves  of  the  truth,  it  can- 
not be  expected  that  I  should  know  it.  Fascinating  as 
such  investigations  are,  I  can  only  make  them  for  myself, 
lest  in  giving  my  conclusions  I  should  mislead  others. 

That  Andrea  Ciccione  was  the  sculptor  of  the  monument 
to  King  Ladislaus,  in  S.  Giovanni  a  Carbonara,  of  which 
we  have  spoken,  there  is  no  doubt.  He  also  erected  that 
of  the  lover  of  Queen  Joanna  II.,  the  Grand  Seneschal 
Carracciolo,  in  a  chapel  of  the  same  church ;  it  is  scarcely 
a  creditable  work  to  any  sculptor  of  any  age.  It  is  faulty 
in  design  and  coarse  in  execution,  and,  as  Perkins  has 
remarked,  "  has  but  one  original  feature,  of  doubtful  taste, 
namely,  the  representation  of  the  Virtues  in  military 
garb." 

The  works  of  the  contemporary  of  Ciccione,  the  Abbate 
Antonio  di  Domenico  Bamboccio  are  little  better  than 
those  we  have  mentioned.  Bamboccio  died  in  1422 ;  and 
very  soon  after  Michelozzo,  Antonio,  Rosellino,  Benedetto 
and  Giuliano  da  Maiano,  and  other  artists  from  the  North 
of  Italy,  executed  works  in  Naples  which  were  not  only  of 
value  in  themselves,  but  of  great  benefit  in  their  influence 
upon  other  sculptors. 

Of  Giovanni  Merliano  da  Nola  we  have  already  spoken, 
and  when  we  compare  him  with  other  Neapolitan  sculptors 
we  may  well  praise  his  work ;  but  when  contrasted  with 


NEAPOLITAN  ART  AND  LETTERS.  247 

truly  great  artists,  his  weakness  and  want  of  originality 
are  at  once  apparent.  His  works  are  numerous  in  the 
churches  of  Naples,  and  Domenici  and  other  Neapolitan 
writers  on  art  are  proud  of  him  and  loud  in  his  praises. 

That  Girolamo  Santa  Croce  (1502  ?-1537)  was  superior 
to  Da  Nola  may  be  seen  in  his  chef  d'ceuvre,  already  men- 
tioned, the  Arcadian  bas-relief  on  the  tomb  of  the  poet 
Sannazzaro.  Benedetto  Menzini  thus  praises  it :  — 

"  On  the  marble  scrolled 
Foliage  and  fruits  intwine  in  graceful  fold : 
And  central,  as  a  goddess,  Naples  awes. 
On  one  side  nets  extended  on  the  sand, 
And  in  the  distance  a  small  bark,  appear  : 
Flutes  on  the  other,  and  a  sylvan  band." 

Whether  Santa  Croce  executed  other  parts  of  the  tomb 
or  not  is  a  matter  of  dispute,  but  this  bas-relief  is  clearly 
his.  It  displays  an  unusual  study  of  the  antique ;  the  in- 
fluence of  Michael  Angelo  is  also  detected  in  the  muscles 
and  hands,  while  the  details  are  finished  with  care  and 
taste.  No  other  Neapolitan  sculptors  are  so  important  as 
to  demand  any  part  of  our  limited  space,  as  we  do  not  pro- 
pose speaking  of  those  of  the  present  day. 

Authoritative  writers  on  art  are  so  far  from  agreeing  in 
their  estimates  of  the  earliest  painters  of  Naples  —  some  of 
them  even  considering  artists  who  have  been  written  and 
talked  of  as  absolute  myths  —  that  it  is  best  to  leave  this 
misty  dawn  of  Neapolitan  art  out  of  our  consideration.  In 
the  fifteenth  century,  the  time  of  Jan  van  Eyck,  there 
were  artists  in  Naples  who,  however  we  may  esteem  their 
pictures,  were  ambitious  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  all  new 
methods  and  discoveries  that  could  improve  their  work. 
While  seeking  a  knowledge  of  vehicles  from  Van  Eyck,  they 
imbibed  some  of  his  artistic  qualities  as  well ;  and  their 
Italian  sentiment  for  grace  and  beauty,  when  modified  by 
Flemish  realism,  produced  the  attractive  manner  of  Lo 


248  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Zingaro.  From  this  time  until  new  heights  were  revealed 
to  them  by  Perugino,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Raphael,  the 
works  of  what  may  be  termed  the  Zingaresque  school  are 
very  interesting.  The  sincerity  of  expression  and  the  strik- 
ing individuality  of  their  portraits,  their  naivete  in  com- 
position, and  the  absolute  realism  in  their  accessories  — 
costumes,  jewels,  and  furniture  —  go  to  make  a  curious  and 
attractive  whole.  The  painters  of  whom  I  have  already 
spoken  with  more  or  less  detail  are  Antonio  Solario, 
called  Lo  Zingaro,  1382  (?)-1455  ;  Sabbatini,  or  Andrea  da 
Salerno,  1480-1545;  Girolamo  Sante  Croce,  1520-1549; 
Belisario  Corenzio,  1558  (?)-1643  (?);  Michael  Angelo  Ameri- 
ghi,  called  Caravaggio,  1569-1609 ;  Giovanni  Battista 
Caracciolo,  1580-1641 ;  Massimo  Stanzioni,  1585-1656  ; 
Andrea  Vaccaro,  1598-1670;  Aniello  Falcone,  1600  (?)- 
1665 ;  Domenico  Gargiuoli,  or  Micco  Spadro,  1612-1679 ; 
Mattia  Preti,  called  II  Calabrese,  1613-1699;  Salvator 
Rosa,  1615-1675 ;  Viviano  Codagora,  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century ;  Luca  Giordano,  1632-1705. 

When  Neapolitan  painting  is  carefully  studied,  an  impor- 
tant change  in  style  is  manifest  towards  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  which  later  becomes  more  pronounced. 
Neapolitan  artists  had  travelled,  and  some  of  them  had 
studied  in  Rome,  Venice,  and  Parma,  and  finally,  at  Naples, 
practised  what  may  be  called  an  art  of  their  own.  They 
were  also  fiercely  determined  that  no  other  artists  should 
be  permitted  to  execute  important  commissions  in  Naples. 
The  methods  by  which  they  accomplished  their  purpose  have 
already  been  referred  to,  and  are  too  well  known  to  require 
an  account  of  them  here. 

The  painting  of  this  school  —  the  Naturalisti  —  has  been 
called  "  the  poetry  of  the  repulsive,"  and  is  much  the  same 
in  art  that  extremely  realistic  novels  are  in  literature. 
Their  power,  which  cannot  be  denied,  in  the  representation 
of  passion  —  of  love  and  hate  —  holds  one  for  a  time  in 


NEAPOLITAN  ART  AND  LETTERS.  249 

wonder  at  such  audacity  and  recklessness  ;  but  the  moment 
of  disgust  succeeds,  when  one  would  sweep  all  these  works 
—  pictures  and  books  alike  —  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  if 
that  were  possible. 

Late  in  the  seventeenth  century,  Luca  Giordano,  called 
Fa  Presto  (1632-1705),  proved  himself  a  marvellous  painter, 
though  he  sacrificed  all  other  qualities  to  a  slight  and  rapid 
execution.  His  pictures  have  beauty  of  color  and  form, 
pronounced  character,  and  even  dramatic  action ;  but  all 
these  are  rendered  in  an  "  impressionist "  manner  that 
must  delight  a  large  following  of  that  school  at  the  present 
time.  A  splendid  example  of  Giordano's  work  is  above  the 
principal  entrance  to  the  church  of  S.  Filippo  Neri,  or  de' 
Gerolomini ;  the  subject  is  "  Christ  driving  the  Money- 
changers from  the  Temple."  It  is  colossal  in  size,  and  the 
profaners  of  the  sanctuary  are  just  such  Lazzaroni  as  so 
exhaust  one's  patience  in  Naples  as  to  render  the  treat- 
ment they  are  receiving  in  Luca's  picture  acceptable  and 
even  soothing  to  the  feelings  of  the  spectator. 

With  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  an  era  of  the 
commonplace  was  ushered  in  throughout  Italy.  The  chief 
aim  of  the  artists  of  this  period  was  to  fill  great  spaces 
with  a  decorative  painting  not  much  above  the  requisites 
of  the  theatre ;  not  equal,  in  many  cases,  to  the  best  scene- 
painting  of  modern  days.  Since  that  time  Italy  has  never 
held  the  absolute  priority  in  art  which  was  so  long  her 
right.  Let  us  hope  that  the  past  two  centuries  have  been 
a  fallow  time  which  shall  be  succeeded  by  new  glory. 

We  have  spoken  in  our  earliest  pages  of  Frederick  II., 
"  the  wonder  of  the  world,"  and  attributed  to  him  the  first 
impulse  that  was  given  to  learning  and  letters  in  the  Nea- 
politan kingdom.  The  so-called  "  Sicilian  epoch  "  in  the 
literature  of  Southern  Italy,  with  which  Frederick  is  asso- 
ciated, began  in  the  twelfth  century,  when  William  II. 
encouraged  the  Troubadours  at  Palermo,  and  ended  with 


250  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

the  death  of  Manfred.  It  was  at  its  best  from  1210  to  1250, 
when  Frederick,  whom  Dante  called  Cherico  grande,  in- 
spired men  by  his  appreciation  of  their  best  work  as  well 
as  by  his  example.  He  was  described  as  veramente 
specchio  del  mondo  in  parlare  et  in  costumi.  Even  Salim- 
bene,  who  was  far  from  admiring  Frederick,  calls  him  a 
poet  of  no  mean  pretensions. 

"While  Frederick  adopted  Provencal  literature,  he  gave  it 
an  Italian  form.  Aiming  first  of  all  to  establish  a  power- 
ful Italian  dynasty,  he  promoted  purely  Italian  studies ;  and 
in  the  circle  that  surrounded  him,  the  Italian  language  un- 
doubtedly had  its  birth,  and  was  used  in  versification  very 
early  in  its  existence.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  one  year 
before  the  death  of  Manfred  —  with  whose  life  the  flame  of 
learning  that  had  been  lighted  in  the  Neapolitan  peninsula 
went  out  —  Dante  was  born  in  Florence,  the  poet  who  was 
to  express  the  fullest  beauty  and  power  which  this  new 
language  could  be  made  to  convey. 

Robert  the  Wise  (1309-1343)  was  the  next  king  of 
Naples  who  loved  letters  and  the  company  of  scholars. 
His  friendship  for  Petrarch  has  been  mentioned,  as  well  as 
that  Boccaccio  found  an  inspiration  at  Naples  in  the  Fiam- 
meta  of  whom  he  became  so  fond,  a  natural  daughter  of 
King  Robert.  Symonds  calls  the  death  of  Boccaccio,  who 
died  seventeen  months  after  the  death  of  Petrarch,  in  1374, 
and  about  the  same  time  with  that  of  the  painter,  Andrea 
Orcagna,  the  end  of  the  Middle  Age. 

The  chief  importance  of  the  fourteenth  century  —  the 
quattrocento  —  in  regard  to  Italian  literature  lies  in 
the  fact  that  at  this  time  the  learned  men  of  Italy  and  the 
popular  element  of  the  nation  came  to  know  each  other, 
and  the  Tuscan  and  Neo-classic  tongues  made  way  for 
Italian  in  literature.  A  detailed  account  of  all  the 
scholars  and  writers  of  Naples  cannot  be  given  here.  There 
were  those  who  struggled  to  keep  the  literary  flame  alive 


NEAPOLITAN  ART  AND  LETTERS.  251 

during  the  years  of  its  greatest  eclipse,  but  their  genius 
shed  too  dim  and  uncertain  a  light  to  be  clearly  discerned 
at  this  distance  of  time.  We  shall  consider  those  only  of 
whom  some  clear  account  can  be  given. 

The  reign  of  Alfonso  of  Aragon,  called  the  Magnani- 
mous (1441-1458),  was  a  fortunate  period  for  Neapolitan 
scholars.  After  Nicholas  V.,  Alfonso  was  the  most  muni- 
ficent patron  of  learning  of  his  time.  He  found  his  chief 
pleasure  and  satisfaction  in  the  company  of  scholars,  and 
in  promoting  their  pursuits  by  supplying  them  with  books 
and  maintaining  them  in  comfort  while  they  were  occu- 
pied in  research  and  writing.  When  on  his  campaigns 
he  insisted  on  having  scholars  in  his  camp,  and  was 
accustomed  to  gather  his  officers  about  him  to  listen  to 
Beccadelli's  expositions  of  Livy  and  the  reading  of  ancient 
poets. 

Valla  described  the  concourse  of  students  which  Alfonso 
welcomed  to  his  court  and  table  to  listen  to  discourses  or 
to  readings  and  recitations  from  the  classics.  He  excluded 
mere  courtiers  from  these  symposia,  and  welcomed  poor 
youths  who  hungered  for  such  opportunities.  In  these  cus- 
toms he  resembled  Lorenzo  de'  Medici.  His  reverence  for 
antiquities  was  such  that  when  on  the  march  he  visited  all 
famous  sites  and  preserved  them  from  desecration.  When 
a  bone  from  the  skeleton  of  Livy  was  sent  him  as  a  gift 
from  Venice,  he  received  and  prized  it  as  sacred.  Alfonso 
collected  a  fine  library  in  the  palace  at  Naples,  which  was 
scattered,  no  one  knows  whither,  while  Charles  VIII.  oc- 
cupied the  capital. 

Antonio  Beccadelli,  a  native  of  Palermo,  was  a  favored 
friend  of  this  sovereign  ;  and  although  the  immorality  of  his 
writing  had  subjected  Beccadelli  to  severe  criticism  from 
the  Pope  and  churchmen,  yet  Alfonso,  after  calling  the 
scholar  to  his  court,  ennobled  him,  made  him  tutor  to  the 
crown  prince  Ferdinand,  and  greatly  enjoyed  his  wit  and 


252  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

society.     Beccadelli's  favor  survived  the  reign  of  Alfonso ; 
and  he  died,  aged  and  wealthy,  in  1471. 

Alfonso  invited  the  great  free-thinker  Lorenzo  Valla  to 
Naples  in  1437,  and  besides  honoring  him  as  a  poet,  in- 
stalled him  as  his  private  secretary.  Being  thus  in  a  posi- 
tion of  safety,  Valla  launched  his  criticisms  and  accusations 
of  the  rulers  of  the  Church,  from  Pope  to  friar,  with  fear- 
lessness and  freedom.  At  length  he  was  summoned  to  a 
Court  of  Inquisition,  from  which  Alfonso  rescued  him ;  and 
when  Nicholas  V.  became  Pope,  he  invited  Valla  to  Rome, 
that  he  might  have  this  eminent  scholar  in  his  court.  This 
Pope  was  too  enlightened  a  man  to  heed  the  heresy  and 
scepticism  of  one  who  could  translate  from  the  Greek,  and 
aid  him  in  other  ways  so  essentially  as  Lorenzo  Valla 
could  do. 

Bartolommeo  Fazio,  the  historiographer  of  Alfonso,  wrote 
of  celebrated  men,  and  excited  Valla's  wrath  by  criticising 
his  style.  Both  these  scholars  were  of  a  determined  nature, 
and  their  recriminations  were  so  interminable  that  when 
they  both  died,  in  1457,  it  was  predicted  that  their  animos- 
ities would  disturb  the  world  to  which  they  had  gone. 

Giovannantonio  Porcello,  born  at  Naples,  was  also  a 
favorite  with  Alfonso.  His  fluency  in  versification  made 
him  acceptable  as  an  improvvisatore.  He  dedicated  his 
principal  work  to  Alfonso,  according  to  the  custom  of  the 
time,  for  scholars  in  all  parts  of  Italy  paid  this  honor  to 
the  King  of  Naples. 

The  Neapolitan  writers  were  not  men  of  deep  learning ; 
they  especially  prized  the  freedom  they  were  allowed  in 
speculation  and  in  the  expression  of  their  attitude  towards 
the  dogmas  of  the  Church,  which  could  scarcely  have  been 
permitted  in  any  other  part  of  Italy.  Whatever  one  may 
think  of  the  immorality  of  the  literature  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  at  this  period,  it  had  the  charms  of  lightness  and 
freedom  from  conventionality,  bigotry,  and  superstition. 


NEAPOLITAN  ART  AND  LETTERS.        253 

Jovianus  Pontanus,  born  at  Cereto  in  1426,  was  intro- 
duced to  Alfonso  by  Beccadelli,  and  later  was  made  Presi- 
dent of  the  Neapolitan  Academy.  Under  three  kings  — 
Ferdinand  I.,  Alfonso  II.,  and  Ferdinand  II.  —  he  held 
posts  of  honor  at  Naples,  and  was  sent  as  an  ambassador 
to  other  courts ;  he  also  accompanied  his  sovereigns  in  their 
military  campaigns. 

The  meetings  of  the  Academy  doubtless  originated  in 
the  social  circle  of  scholars  that  habitually  surrounded 
Alfonso  I.  When  that  circle  was  broken  up,  these  men 
met  in  what  was  called  the  Portions  Antonianus,  Pontanus 
being  the  leader  of  this  more  formal  assembly.  The  mem- 
bers latinized  their  names,  and  some  of  them  are  better 
known  by  their  academic  than  by  their  family  cognomens. 

It  is  difficult  to  imagine  any  honest  reasoning  by  which 
Pontanus  could  justify  himself  in  welcoming  Charles  VIII. 
to  Naples  with  a  flattering  address,  and  equally  difficult  to 
understand  how  his  friends  could  pardon  his  so  doing. 
We  are  glad  to  know  that  this  act  did  lessen  his  prestige 
among  his  companions.  The  only  excuse  that  has  been 
made  for  him  is,  that,  having  perceived  and  boldly  de- 
nounced the  vices  of  Italian  princes,  he  hoped  for  a  refor- 
mation under  the  new  sovereign. 

Whatever  personal  faults  Pontanus  had,  as  a  scholar  he 
was  of  great  importance.  Symonds  says  :  — 

"  Throughout  his  writings  Pontanus  shows  himself  to  have 
been  an  original  and  vigorous  thinker,  a  complete  master  of 
Latin  scholarship,  unwilling  to  abide  contented  with  bare  imi- 
tation, and  bent  upon  expressing  the  facts  of  modern  life,  the 
actualities  of  personal  emotion,  in  a  style  of  accurate  Latinity. 
When  he  died  in  1503,  he  left  at  Naples  one  of  the  most  flour- 
ishing schools  of  neopagan  poets  to  be  found  in  Italy ;  Lilius 
Gyraldus  employs  the  old  metaphor  of  the  Trojan  horse  to 
describe  the  number  and  the  vigor  of  the  scholars  who  issued 
from  it" 


254  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Much  of  Pontanus'  writing  would  shock  a  modern 
reader,  so  frankly  does  he  present  the  sentiments  and 
experiences  which  are  customarily  thought  to  be  too  per- 
sonal and  too  sacred  to  be  spoken  of,  even  to  intimate 
friends  ;  but  Pontanus  did  not  hesitate  to  publish  these  to 
the  world.  Of  his  love  poetry  Symonds  says  :  — 

"  His  Muse  is  no  mere  vagrant  Venus.  She  is  a  respectable, 
if  not,  according  to  our  .present  views,  an  altogether  decent 
Juno.  The  final  truth  about  her  is  that  she  revealed  to  her 
uniquely  gifted  bard,  on  earth  and  in  the  shrine  of  home,  that 
poetry  of  love  which  Milton  afterwards  mythologized  in  Eden. 
The  note  of  unadulterated  humanity  sounds  with  a  clearness 
that  demands  commemoration  in  this  poetry  of  passion.  It 
is,  if  not  the  highest,  yet  the  frankest  and  most  decided  utter- 
ance of  mutual,  legitimate  desire.  As  such,  it  occupies  an 
enviable  place  in  the  history  of  Italian  love,  —  equally  apart 
from  trecento  sickliness  and  cinquecento  corruption ;  unrefined, 
perchance,  but  healthy ;  doing  justice  to  the  proletariate  of 
Naples  whence  it  sprung." 

Pontanus'  descriptions  of  nature,  of  the  people  and  their 
customs,  —  in  fact,  of  whatever  he  considers,  —  reveal  to  us 
all  that  he  saw  as  clearly  as  if  these  scenes  were  mirrored 
before  our  eyes ;  and  all  that  he  wrote  is  overflowing  with 
vitality. 

I  have  referred  to  the  curious  terra-cotta  Pietd  in  the 
church  of  Monte  Oliveto,  in  which  Pontanus  and  Sannaz- 
zaro  kneel  beside  Alfonso  II.  Pontanus,  who  personates 
Nicodemus,  is  a  man  of  powerful  frame  and  a  serious 
expression  of  countenance,  with  no  possible  indication  of 
the  poet  about  him.  The  devotional  act  in  which  he  is 
here  represented  is  so  out  of  keeping  with  some  of  his 
writing  and  with  our  customary  estimate  of  his  habit  of 
life,  that  it  suggests  the  thought  of  his  having  assumed 
what  he  deemed  the  proper  expression  for  the  occasion. 

The   friendship  between  the  two  poets  represented  in 


NEAPOLITAN  ART  AND  LETTERS.        255 

this  group  continued  as  long  as  both  lived.  Sannazzaro 
was  born  in  Naples  in  1458,  and  made  his  studies  there. 
His  proficiency  in  the  classics  was  acknowledged  by  his 
admission  to  Pontanus'  academy.  As  a  youth,  Sannazzaro 
was  a  friend  of  Prince  Frederick ;  and  when  the  latter 
became  king,  he  gave  the  scholar  a  pension  of  600  ducats 
and  the  Villa  Mergellina,  on  the  road  to  Posilipo.  This 
modest  provision  enabled  Sannazzaro  to  live  in  comfort 
until  the  destruction  of  his  villa  by  the  troops  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange  in  1528,  which  was  a  great  affliction  to 
him.  The  poet  gave  the  land  to  the  Servite  monks,  who 
built  the  church  of  S.  Maria  del  Parto,  thus  named  in 
honor  of  the  poem  of  their  benefactor,  "De  Partu  Vir- 
ginis ; "  it  is  also  called  Sannazzaro's  Church,  and  contains 
his  tomb,  of  which  we  have  spoken.  In  a  chapel  of  this 
church  is  a  picture  of  S.  Michael  trampling  on  Satan;  it 
is  said  that  the  saint  is  represented  by  a  portrait  of  Diomede 
Carafa,  Bishop  of  Ariano,  who  is  buried  near  this  spot ; 
while  the  devil  has  the  head  of  a  beautiful  woman  of 
Naples,  who  tempted  the  bishop  in  his  early  life.  The  in- 
scription "  Fecit  Victoriam  Alleluja  "  refers  to  the  bishop's 
victory  over  temptation ;  and  from  this  picture  comes 
the  Neapolitan  proverb  which  is  applied  to  all  women  of 
seductive  power,  "  Una  diavola  della  Mergellina." 

Sannazzaro  proved  a  faithful  follower  to  the  House  of 
Aragon,  and  even  shared  the  exile  of  Frederick,  remaining 
with  him  as  long  as  he  lived.  The  poet  did  not  long  sur- 
vive his  king,  as  he  died  at  Naples  in  1530. 

Sannazzaro's  earliest  verses  were  inspired  by  his  love 
for  Carmosina  Bonifacia,  who  was  young  and  of  a  noble 
family.  He  was  distracted  by  jealousy,  and  attempted  to 
cure  himself  by  leaving  the  scene  of  his  passion ;  he  went 
to  France,  and  during  his  absence  Carmosina  died.  Some 
of  the  finest  passages  in  his  poems  refer  to  this  early  and 
enduring  affection. 


256  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

After  his  return  to  Naples  at  this  time,  he  wrote  his 
Piscatorial  Eclogues,  which  were  justly  celebrated ;  in 
them,  it  has  been  said,  he  surrounded  himself  by  the 
pastoral  Muses  on  the  seashore.  Where  else  in  the  world 
are  the  combined  charms  of  land  and  sea  so  full  of  poetry 
as  on  the  Bay  of  Naples  ?  Where  else  are  the  fishermen 
so  picturesque  ?  Then,  too,  it  is  the  very  home  of  sirens 
and  nereids,  and  we  musjb  believe  it  to  have  had  its  attrac- 
tions for  Poseidon  and  the  tritons.  It  would  seem  that 
a  poet  who  loved  the  sea,  and  knew  his  classics  well,  could 
scarcely  prevent  such  eclogues  from  flowing  off  his  pen 
when  living  with  this  entrancing  bay  always  before  his 
eyes,  and  its  associations  in  his  mind.  Sannazzaro's  second 
love  was  of  a  platonic  nature  and  most  creditable  to  him, 
since  Cassandra  Marchesa  remained  his  devoted  friend 
through  life ;  her  companionship  was  the  joy  of  his  latest 
years,  and  he  is  said  to  have  died  in  her  house. 

Sannazzaro  is  best  known  by  his  "  Arcadia,"  which  is 
a  most  valuable  exponent  of  the  classical  revival  at  its 
height,  —  midway  between  its  untutored  youth  and  its  too 
conscious  age.  Its  title  suggests  its  nature ;  and  although 
it  is  full  of  shepherds,  nymphs,  fauns,  and  allegorical  tales, 
it  is  a  truly  valuable  picture  of  Southern  Italy  in  the  fif- 
teenth century.  It  was  immensely  popular  in  its  time,  and 
is  now  a  masterpiece  of  its  epoch,  and  has  a  double  interest 
for  us,  since  it  is  believed  to  have  inspired  Sir  Philip 
Sidney's  work  of  the  same  nature. 

Masuccio  Guardato,  a  noble  of  Salerno,  passed  his  life 
at  the  court  of  Naples,  and  wrote  the  "  Novellino,"  which 
appeared  in  1476.  He  called  himself  the  disciple  of 
Boccaccio  and  Juvenal.  Each  of  his  tales  is  dedicated  to 
some  noble  man  or  woman  well  known  in  Naples ;  they 
are  a  curious  mixture  of  the  language  of  the  cultivated 
with  that  of  the  common  people,  and  are  an  important 
contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  the  manners  of  his  time, 


NEAPOLITAN  ART  AND  LETTERS.        257 

although  they  are  inferior  to  the  tales  of  the  Decameron, 
which  were  recited  first  in  Naples. 

Masuccio's  "Novelle"  cover  a  wide  range  of  subjects ;  with 
few  touches  he  sets  his  scenes  before  us,  and  we  understand 
his  intense  love  of  beauty.  His  hatred  of  hypocrisy,  espe- 
cially in  the  clergy,  his  passion  and  his  pleasure,  his  anger 
and  his  humor,  fix  our  attention  by  their  absolute  sincerity. 
Symonds  places  a  high  estimate  on  Masuccio,  and  says  : 

"  It  is  the  blending  of  so  many  elements,  —  the  interweaving 
of  tragedy  and  comedy,  satire  and  pathos,  grossness  and  senti- 
ment, in  a  style  of  unadorned  sincerity,  that  places  Masuccio 
high  among  novelists.  Had  his  language  been  as  pure  as  that 
of  the  earlier  Tuscan  or  the  later  Italian  authors,  he  would 
probably  rank  second  only  to  Boccaccio  in  the  estimation  even 
of  his  fellow-countrymen.  A  foreigner,  less  sensitive  to  nice- 
ties of  idiom,  may  be  excused  for  recognizing  him  as  at  least 
Bandello's  equal  in  the  story-teller's  art.  In  moral  quality  he 
is  superior  not  only  to  Bandello,  but  also  to  Boccaccio." 

The  study  of  the  songs  of  the  people  is  fascinating.  But 
too  much  space  is  required  even  to  outline  the  differences 
between  Canzune,  Rispetti,  Villotte,  Strambotti,  Stornelli, 
and  others,  for  us  to  do  more  than  suggest  their  interest 
here.  Much  has  been  written  concerning  the  origin  of 
these  songs  which  may  to-day  be  heard  among  the  peas- 
ants and  common  people  of  all  Italy,  and  many  authorities 
agree  in  believing  them  to  have  originated  in  Southern 
Italy  in  the  Suabian  period,  —  the  Sicilian  epoch. 

The  Calabrian  philosophy  of  the  sixteenth  century  is  of 
profound  interest,  represented  as  it  was  by  Telesio  of 
Cosenza,  Bruno  of  Nola,  and  Campanella  of  Stilo,  —  who 
may  well  be  called  forerunners  of  modern  science;  men 
who  were  brave  enough  to  suffer  tortures  and  even  die  for 
the  truth  as  they  believed  it.  When  we  read  of  the  suf- 
ferings of  Campanella  on  account  of  his  belief  that  a 

17 


258  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

greater  truth  existed  than  could  be  learned  from  "  scholas- 
tic philosophy,"  we  burn  with  indignation.  Confined  in  a 
Neapolitan  dungeon  twenty-seven  years,  tortured  seven 
times,  brought  to  trial  five  times,  accused  of  heresy  and 
of  writing  a  book  which  existed  thirty  years  before  he  was 
born, —  after  all  this  how  truly  he  must  have  been  com- 
forted by  the  friendship  of  Urban  VIII.  and  Cardinal 
Richelieu !  His  bold  and  clear  opinions  stand  out  in  his 
writings  from  a  curious  background  of  the  superstition 
and  confusion  of  ideas  which  characterized  his  age ;  but 
to  be  entirely  free  of  these  he  must  have  been  some- 
thing more  than  a  man  who  had  spent  half  a  life  in  a 
dungeon  could  be  expected  to  be. 

Giordano  Bruno,  a  Dominican,  who  could  not  accept  the 
dogmas  of  Transubstantiation  and  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, was  less  fortunate.  After  long  travels  and  two 
years  spent  in  England,  after  friendships  with  many  of 
the  most  learned  men  in  Europe,  after  lecturing  in  Paris 
and  filling  a  professorship  at  Wittenberg,  he  returned  to 
Italy,  and  after  long  persecutions  was  burned  at  the  stake 
in  1600.  Modern  philosophers  like  Spinoza  and  Descartes, 
as  well  as  many  Germans,  have  justly  valued  the  writings 
of  Bruno. 

Telesio  of  Cosenza,  whose  ideas  were  given  to  the  world 
in  his  work  "  On  the  Nature  of  Things  according  to  Proper 
Principles,"  paid  the  penalty  with  his  life  ;  and  a  little 
later,  Yanini,  who  wrote  "On  the  Admirable  Secrets  of 
Nature,  the  Queen  and  Goddess  of  Mortals,"  suffered  death 
three  years  after  its  publication,  his  tongue  being  torn  out 
before  his  execution.  There  were  many  Italian  martyrs 
to  like  opinions,  and  many  others  who,  like  Galileo,  did 
not  insist  upon  their  views ;  but  these  of  whom  I  have 
spoken  were  Neapolitans,  and  of  this  school  of  men,  in- 
spired with  lofty  thoughts  in  the  midst  of  surroundings 
which  would  seem  to  forbid  their  growth,  Symonds  says : 


NEAPOLITAN  ART  AND  LETTERS.        259 

"Telesio  and  Campanella,  long  before  Bacon,  founded  em- 
pirical science.  Campanella  and  Bruno,  long  before  Descartes, 
established  the  principle  of  idealistic  philosophy  in  the  self- 
conscious  thinking  faculty  of  man.  The  sensualism  of  Telesio, 
the  spiritualism  of  Bruno,  and  Campanella's  dualism  fore- 
shadow all  possible  secrets  of  empiricists,  rationalists,  and 
eclectics,  which  have  since  divided  the  field  of  modern  specu- 
lation. It  is  easy  enough  now  to  look  down  either  from  the 
height  of  full-blown  transcendental  metaphysics  or  from  the 
more  modest  eminence  of  solid  physical  science  upon  the  intel- 
lectual abortions  generated  by  this  potent  conception  in  its 
earliest  fusion  with  medieval  theology.  Yet  it  is  impossible  to 
neglect  the  negative  importance  of  the  work  effected  by  men 
who  declared  their  independence  of  ecclesiastical  and  classical 
authority  in  an  age  when  the  Church  and  antiquity  contended 
for  the  empire  of  the  human  reason.  Still  less  possible  is  it  to 
deny  the  place  of  Galileo,  Descartes,  Bacon,  Spinoza,  among 
the  offspring  begotten  of  the  movement  which  Pomponazzi, 
Telesio,  Campanella,  and  Bruno  inaugurated  and  developed." 

1  have  hastily  outlined  the  literature  of  Southern  Italy 
during  the  awakening  which  gradually  followed  the  reign 
of  William  I.,  died  out,  was  again  vivified,  and  culminated 
in  the  height  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  political  history 
of  the  Neapolitans  after  this  period  has  shown  us  a  con- 
dition of  life,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  classes,  that 
forbade  an  intellectual  growth,  —  a  condition  in  which 
learning  and  literature  could  find  no  nourishment. 

After  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  Alfonso 
the  Magnanimous  shed  an  unwonted  lustre  on  his  office 
and  his  kingdom,  the  prestige  of  Naples  was  gradually 
lessened  until  she  was  but  a  scorn  and  a  byword  among 
the  nations.  We  have  seen  how  her  rulers,  her  clergy,  her 
nobles,  and  her  soldiers  were  wanting  in  patriotism  and 
religion;  how  the  oppression  of  the  people  and  the  self- 
indulgence  of  the  nobles  wrought  their  deadly  work,  until 
Naples  might  well  be  described  by  the  five  potent  words 


260  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIEONS. 

with  which   Machiavelli    characterized   all  Italy,  —  "the 
corruption  of  the  world." 

With  such  an  acknowledgment  —  from  so  high  a  source 
as  that  last  quoted  —  of  the  value  of  the  legacy  bequeathed 
to  us  by  some  Neapolitans  of  the  Renaissance,  we  conclude 
this  scanty  resume.  May  the  debt  which  we  of  this  pro- 
gressive century  owe  to  men  who,  just  emerging  from 
the  darkness  of  the  Middle  Ages,  had  the  wisdom  to 
perceive,  to  study,  to  declare,  and  even  to  die  for  truths 
higher  than  those  they  had  been  taught,  be  clearly  per- 
ceived and  justly  estimated! 


CHAPTER  XII. 

POZZUOLI,   BAI^E,   CUM.E,   PROCIDA,  AND   ISCHIA. 

THE  excursions  about  Naples  afford  rare  pleasure, 
especially  in  the  springtime.  The  putting  forth  of 
trees,  vines,  and  flowers,  the  fascinating  views  o'er  land 
and  sea,  and  the  glamour  of  associations  with  ancient 
peoples,  sovereigns,  warriors,  and  poets,  which  may  be 
traced  at  every  step,  make  up  a  whole,  in  which  every 
one  —  no  matter  what  the  individual  taste  may  be  —  can 
find  a  charm  or  interest. 

Many  historic  associations  cluster  about  Posilipo,  the 
first  hill  west  of  the  city  ;  its  name  in  Greek,  Pausilypon, 
signifies  cessation  from  sorrow.  Here  the  Emperor  Au- 
gustus came  to  drink  in  health  and  peace  ;  while  Pollio, 
Lucullus,  and  many  Roman  patricians  had  villas  here  to 
which  they  gladly  escaped  from  Imperial  Rome,  seeking 
rest  and  pleasure.  Poets  too,  like  Virgil,  Silius  Italicus, 
and  Sannazzaro  found  the  hill  of  Posilipo  a  most  grateful 
abiding-place  ;  and  here  Virgil  wrote  the  Georgics  and  the 


The  old  Grotto  of  Posilipo  has  been  closed  since  the  open- 
ing of  the  new  tunnel,  through  which  the  steam  tramway 
passes.  This  fine  example  of  Roman  engineering  and 
masonry  probably  dates  from  the  time  of  Augustus.  An- 
cient writers  speak  of  its  gloom  ;  and  in  the  Middle  Ages 
many  superstitions  were  connected  with  this  locality,  one 
of  which  attributed  magic  arts  to  Virgil.  Alfonso  I.,  Don 
Pedro  de  Toledo,  and  Carlo  Borbone  each  improved  this 


262  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

venerable  grotto,  which  is  superseded  in  these  progressive 
days  ;  and  one  is  glad  that  the  screeching,  rushing  trains 
of  the  tram  pass  by  another  way. 

In  a  garden  above  the  grotto  is  the  Roman  columbarium 
called  Virgil's  Tomb.  Doubts  as  to  the  genuineness  of 
this  claim  seem  to  be  unfounded,  since  we  know  that  the 
poet  desired  to  be  brought  here  from  Brundusium,  where 
he  died,  B.  c.  19.  Virgil  was  making  a  journey  with 
Augustus  when  attacked  by  a  fatal  illness,  and  his  remains 
were  removed  to  Naples  by  the  emperor's  command. 
About  a  century  later,  Statius,  the  Neapolitan,  wrote  :  — 

"  At  Virgil's  honored  tomb  I  sit  and  sing ; 
Warm'd  by  the  hallow'd  spot,  my  Muse  takes  fire ; 
And  sweeps  with  bolder  hand  my  humble  lyre  ; " 

and  Silius  Italicus,  a  contemporary  of  Statius,  purchased 
the  tomb  and  religiously  visited  it  on  Virgil's  birthday. 

The  tomb  originally  resembled  a  small  temple  ;  in  the 
centre,  resting  on  pillars  of  white  marble,  was  the  urn 
containing  the  poet's  ashes,  on  which  was  the  inscription, 
well  known  to  have  been  written  by  Virgil,  shortly  before 
his  death,  — 

"  Mantua  me  genuit,  Calabri  rapuere,  tenet  nunc 
Parthenope,  cecini  pascua,  rura,  duces." 

In  Mantua  [first]  I  saw  the  light  of  day ; 
Calabria  snatched  the  cup  of  life  away ; 
Parthenope  contains  my  grave. 
I  sang  of  flocks  and  fields,  and  heroes  brave. 

Petrarch  and  King  Robert  came  to  this  spot  together,  and 
honored  it  as  Virgil's  tomb ;  Boccaccio  here  found  courage 
to  renounce  the  pursuits  to  which  his  father  destined  him, 
and  dedicate  himself  to  his  art ;  writers  of  the  fourteenth 
century  speak  of  it  with  assurance;  and  the  Bishop  of 
Ariano,  about  1500,  wrote  that  he  had  records  which 
proved  the  tomb  to  be  that  of  Virgil.  He  declared  it  to 


Virgil's  Tomb. 


POZZUOLI,  BALE,  CUM^J,  PROCIDA,  AND  ISCHIA.        263 

have  been  perfect  as  late  as  1326,  when  Robert  of  Anjou 
gave  the  urn,  the  columns,  and  some  small  statues  which 
ornamented  the  columbarium  to  the  Cardinal  of  Mantua 
to  be  taken  to  the  poet's  birthplace  ;  but  the  Cardinal 
having  died  at  Genoa  when  returning  to  Mantua,  the 
relics  were  lost.  Another  legend  relates  that  Robert  re- 
moved the  urn  to  Castel  Nuovo  for  safe  keeping. 

Not  only  has  the  urn  disappeared,  but  the  laurel  which 
Petrarch  planted  has  been  stolen,  bit  by  bit,  and  carried  to 
other  countries,  Voltaire,  the  Margravine  of  Baireuth,  and 
other  notable  persons  sharing  in  this  sacrilege.  But  were 
Virgil  not  buried  here,  we  know  that  all  this  hill  of  Posi- 
lipo  was  familiar  ground,  and  dear  to  him ;  here,  in  the 
villa  of  Lucullus,  he  spent  many  happy  days,  and  his  feet 
have  doubtless  trod  where  we  now  walk  with  thoughts  of 
him  in  mind,  more  than  nineteen  centuries  after  his  im- 
mortal work  was  done.  As  one  sits  on  the  terrace  near 
by,  and  enjoys  the  stupendous  panorama  spread  before 
him,  the  verse  which  commemorates  S.  Paul's  visit  to 
this  spot,  and  was  long  in  use  in  the  cathedral  of  Mantua 
on  that  saint's  day,  is  involuntarily  remembered.  It  is 
thus  translated  by  J.  A.  Symonds :  — 

"  When  to  Maro's  tomb  they  brought  him, 
Tender  grief  and  pity  wrought  him 

To  bedew  the  stone  with  tears ; 
What  a  saint  I  might  have  crowned  thee, 
Had  I  only  living  found  thee 

Poet  first  and  without  peers  !  " 

The  Corniche  of  Posilipo,  skirting  the  cliffs  of  the  pro- 
montory, is  one  of  the  famous  drives  of  the  world.  After 
the  Mergellina,  with  its  exquisite  villas  and  gardens,  the 
views  from  this  road  afford  delightful  contrasts,  embracing, 
as  they  do,  the  city  of  Naples  and  the  coast-line  far  to  the 
east  of  it.  At  sunset  there  is  a  weird  effect  of  flame  that 
gives  the  appearance  of  a  vast  conflagration  to  the  succes- 


264  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

sion  of  villages  extending  from  Naples  to  Castellammare, 
and  one  can  easily  imagine  that  the  thin  blue  smoke  from 
the  summit  of  Vesuvius  is  about  to  burst  into  forked 
flames,  while  the  volcano  vomits  forth  destruction  as  it 
has  so  often  done  and  may  again  do,  at  any  moment. 
From  the  height  of  Posilipo,  where  one  has  the  sense  of 
safety,  this  thought  of  possible  imminent  danger  is  most 
exciting. 

The  less  distant  views  of  Bagnoli,  Camaldoli,  Pozzuoli, 
Baiae,  and  the  islands  of  Nisida,  Procida,  and  Ischia,  are 
exquisite  in  their  variety  of  sea  and  mountain  and  indented 
shore.  The  road  winds  through  pines  and  near  vineyards, 
surrounding  scattered  villas,  while  occasionally  picturesque 
ruins  peep  out  from  clumps  of  shrubs  and  masses  of 
myrtle.  The  wine  of  Posilipo  has  been  celebrated  for  cen- 
turies ;  Tasso  wrote  a  sonnet  in  its  praise,  and  begged  a 
gift  of  it  from  Alfonso  II. 

Descending  the  Posilipo  on  the  west,  the  road  passes 
near  a  long  tunnel  called  the  Grotto  of  Sejanus,  which, 
however,  is  believed  to  have  existed  long  before  the  time 
of  the  favorite  of  Tiberius.  This  side  the  hill,  as  one  ap- 
proaches the  sea  and  Capo  Coroglio,  is  covered  with  the 
ruins  of  the  villa  of  Lucullus,  which  was  later  enlarged 
by  Vedius  Pollio.  In  fact,  not  only  on  the  hill  and  the 
shore,  but  in  the  sea  itself  there  are  masses  of  substructure 
extending  for  some  distance  into  the  water.  The  ruins 
of  the  small  theatre  of  Lucullus,  as  well  as  those  of  galler- 
ies, porticoes,  reservoirs,  and  other  structures,  can  be  traced, 
many  of  them  being  overgrown  with  plants  and  draped 
with  vines.  The  fishponds  where  the  favorite  lampreys 
of  Vedius  Pollio  were  fed  on  the  flesh  of  his  slaves  —  if 
we  may  trust  the  old  tales  —  are  at  some  distance  from 
the  road. 

The  excursion  to  Nisida,  of  which  we  have  spoken,  may 
be  made  from  Capo  Coroglio.  The  little  island  is  a  charm- 


POZZUOLI,  BALE,  CUM^E,  PROCIDA,  AND  ISCHIA.        265 

ing  feature  of  the  views  from  Posilipo,  nestling  close  to  the 
shore  as  it  does,  with  the  fresh  green  color  which  its  luxu- 
rious gardens  give  ;  but  one  must  regret  that  the  woods 
described  by  Statius  are  now  replaced  by  a  Lazaretto. 

Going  towards  Pozzuoli  from  Capo  Coroglio,  the  road  fol- 
lows the  shore,  passing  through  the  little  town  of  Bagnoli, 
much  affected  by  Neapolitans  in  summer  on  account  of  its 
hot  springs  and  baths.  Before  reaching  Pozzuoli  a  narrow 
road  on  the  right  leads  to  the  Solfatara,  the  crater  of  a 
half-extinct  volcano,  named  from  the  sulphureous  nature 
of  the  gases  which  rise  from  numerous  fissures,  and  have 
the  appearance  of  flames  at  night.  It  has  the  effect  of 
being  a  decapitated  mountain,  and  it  is  not  impossible  that 
in  1198,  when  its  one  known  eruption  occurred,  its  top  was 
blown  to  atoms.  There  is  considerable  heat  in  the  gases 
thrown  off,  and  by  listening  at  the  fissures  a  sound  as  of 
boiling  water  is  heard,  which  indicates  a  subterranean  fire ; 
a  stone  thrown  on  the  ground  produces  a  rumbling  report, 
as  if  it  were  hollow  underneath.  These  peculiar  features 
do  not  make  the  Solfatara  attractive,  although  scientists 
are  positive  that  there  will  be  no  more  explosions  here. 
Some  learned  men  think  that  it  is  connected  with  Vesuvius, 
others  say  with  the  volcano  on  Iscliia ;  while  ancient  poets 
made  it  the  scene  of  the  battle  between  Hercules  and  the 
Giants,  and  a  much  more  recent  Neapolitan  scholar  proved 
to  his  own  satisfaction  that  it  is  the  opening  of  the  infernal 
regions.  One  may  here  give  free  rein  to  imagination, 
since  the  wildest  speculations  cannot  be  authoritatively 
contradicted. 

The  alum  hills  to  the  east  of  the  Solfatara  were  called 
Colles  LeucogoBi  by  the  ancients,  and  their  dust  was  prized 
for  coloring  the  alica,  or  groats,  of  the  Romans ;  and  the 
waters  boiling  at  their  feet,  the  Fontes  Leucogcei,  were  said 
by  Pliny  to  be  of  great  benefit  in  diseases  of  the  eye. 

The  Solfatara  is  but  one  of  the  interesting  features  of  the 


266  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Phlegrsean  Plain,  so  full  of  associations  with  classical  tra- 
ditions, Hellenic  legends,  and  Roman  history  ;  where  the 
Patricians  built  almost  numberless  villas,  amphitheatres, 
and  temples,  of  which  little  remains.  But  the  chaotic  ruins 
—  some  in  shapeless  masses,  others  with  splendid  arches  as 
fresh  and  firm  as  if  just  completed,  and  beautiful  columns 
lying  where  thrown  by  the  convulsions  of  nature  —  draped 
with  delicate  foliage  fed  by  percolating  drops  issuing  from 
invisible  fissures,  are  fascinating  to  us  of  the  New  World. 
No  more  delightful  experience  can  be  had  than  wandering 
here  on  a  soft  spring  day,  when  sea  and  sky  are  of  that 
heavenly  blue  which  is  a  benediction  of  itself.  The  inex- 
pressible beauty  of  islands  and  headlands,  bays  and  coast- 
line, is  the  same  as  when  Statius  wrote :  — 

"  Tempered  by  breezy  summers,  winters  bland, 
The  waveless  seas  glide  slumbering  to  the  land : 
Safe  peace  is  here  ;  life's  careless  ease  is  ours ; 

A  thousand  pleasures  could  my  verse  expand, 
And  darling  loves  of  this,  my  native  land." 

Pozzuoli,  the  Puteoli  of  the  Romans,  is  rich  in  associa- 
tions with  ancient  days,  and  Cicero  called  it  a  miniature 
Rome.  It  was  an  important  mercantile  port  to  the  Romans 
and  Alexandrians.  Fabius,  with  6,000  men,  defended  it 
against  Hannibal ;  Sulla  came  here  B.  c.  79,  and  here  killed 
himself  by  his  debaucheries.  Augustus  made  it  a  Roman 
colony  ;  and  the  shore  was  doubtless  as  full  of  docks  and 
warehouses  as  were  the  surrounding  hills  of  temples,  am- 
phitheatres, and  patrician  villas.  The  fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  sounded  the  note  of  its  destruction,  which  the 
physical  forces  ably  seconded  by  their  upheavals ;  and  the 
plunder  of  the  Goths  in  the  fifth  century  completed  its 
desolation,  which  continued  until  the  Saracens  settled  here 
500  years  later.  In  the  twelfth  century  the  eruption  of 
the  Solfatara  injured  it  greatly ;  in  the  fifteenth  and  six- 


POZZUOLI,  BALE,  CUM.1E,  PROCIDA,  AND  ISCHIA.       267 

teenth  centuries  it  suffered  from  earthquakes  and  the 
attacks  of  the  Turks,  whose  ravages,  together  with  those 
of  malaria,  caused  Pozzuoli  to  be  essentially  abandoned. 

Don  Pedro  de  Toledo,  as  we  have  seen,  attempted  to  re- 
store Pozzuoli  to  some  importance ;  but  the  unhealthfulness 
of  the  whole  precinct  forbade  its  prosperity,  and  it  is  now  a 
quiet  town,  which  in  many  particulars  recalls  the  lines  of 
W.  W.  Story,— 

"  The  streets,  too,  through  whose  narrow,  dusty  track 
We  ride  in  files,  each  on  our  donkey's  back, 
When  evening's  shadow  o'er  the  high  gray  walls, 
O'ertopped  with  oranges  and  olives,  falls, 
And  at  each  corner  'neath  its  roof  of  tiles, 
Hung  with  poor  offerings,  the  Madonna  smiles 
In  her  rude  shrine  so  picturesque  with  dirt. 
Is  this  not  Italy  ?    Your  nerves  are  hurt 
By  that  expression,  —  dirt,  —  nay,  then  I  see 
You  love  not  nature,  art,  nor  Italy." 

But  the  association  with  Pozzuoli  which  most  interests 
us  hangs  on  the  13th  verse  of  the  28th  chapter  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  :  "  And  after  one  day  the  south  wind 
blew,  and  we  came  the  next  day  to  Puteoli :  where  we 
found  brethren,  and  were  desired  to  tarry  with  them  seven 
days." 

It  was  on  May  3,  A.  D.  59,  that  S.  Paul  landed  from  the 
"  Castor  and  Pollux,"  the  third  ship  of  his  voyage  ;  for  he 
left  Cesarea  in  a  vessel  belonging  to  Adramyttium,  and  at 
Myra  was  transferred  to  an  Alexandrian  ship,  laden  with 
wheat  for  the  Roman  market,  which  was  wrecked  at 
Melita,  where  he  embarked  on  the  third,  which  brought 
him  safely  to  this  most  attractive  city. 

The  inscriptions  which  have  been  discovered  at  Pozzuoli 
explain  the  word  "  brethren  "  which  S.  Luke  used.  These 
inscriptions  show  that  there  were  Tyrians  dwelling  at 
Puteoli,  which  was  called  a  "  station  "  or  Tyrian  factory, 
a  second  being  at  Rome,  and  these  being  the  only  two  in 


268  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Italy.  S.  Luke  does  not  use  the  word  "  brethren  "  after 
leaving  his  "  friends  "  at  Sidon,  until  he  reaches  Puteoli. 
The  mercantile  connection  between  Alexandria  and  this 
Italian  port  must  necessarily  have  brought  Jews  here,  and 
Christians  as  well ;  and  it  is  stated  in  the  "  Life  of  S. 
Paul,"  by  Conybeare  and  Howson,  that  "  the  Italian  Chris- 
tians had  long  been,  looking  for  a  visit  from  the  famous 
Apostle." 

In  thinking  of  S.  Paul's  voyage  up  this  coast  from 
Rhegium,  —  a  city  whose  protectors  were  the  same  Gemini 
to  whose  care  Paul's  ship  was  confided,  —  we  question  as 
to  what  existing  features  of  the  coast  are  the  same  as 
when  he  saw  it.  We  can  scarcely  picture  the  glory  that 
he  beheld  when  passing  between  Capri  and  the  promontory 
of  Minerva ;  on  Capri  were  the  twelve  splendid  villas  of 
Tiberius,  while  opposite,  the  wonderful  temple  of  Minerva 
crowned  that  point  where  we  now  see  but  olive-trees  and 
myrtle.  The  majestic  sweep  of  the  bay  and  coast  were 
the  same  as  now ;  but  Neapolis  had  a  lovelier  background 
than  the  Vesuvius  of  to-day,  for  the  great  mountain  was 
then  green  and  beautiful,  its  western  slope  bearing  luxu- 
rious vineyards.  The  ancients  knew  that  its  summit  showed 
signs  of  volcanic  action,  but  who  could  imagine  that  in  a 
score  of  years  it  should  change  its  form,  send  death  and 
destruction  to  the  cities  clustering  at  its  feet,  and  end 
the  lives  of  thousands  ?  How  could  S.  Paul  suspect  that 
Drusilla,  the  wife  of  the  Roman  governor  Felix,  who  had 
talked  with  him  in  his  prison  at  Cesarea,  would  lose  her 
life,  with  that  of  her  son,  in  the  vast  tomb  covered  by  the 
ashes  of  Vesuvius  ? 

Seneca  relates  that  the  Alexandrine  corn-ships  were 
recognized  at  Puteoli  while  still  distant,  as  they  were  the 
only  ships  that  did  not  strike  the  topsail  when  rounding 
the  Cape  of  Minerva.  The  news  of  their  arrival  attracted 
crowds  to  the  pier,  and  we  can  imagine  the  scene  on  which 


POZZUOLI,  BALE,  CU1\LE,  PROCIDA,  AND  ISCHIA.        269 

S.  Paul,  S.  Luke,  and  Aristarchus  gazed,  as  the  "  Castor 
and  Pollux  "  reached  her  destination. 

The  bay  between  Puteoli  and  Baiae  is  calm  and  beautiful, 
affording  a  sheltered  harbor  for  pleasure-boats  or  mer- 
chantmen, and  in  S.  Paul's  time  was  filled  with  both  ;  for 
Baiae  was  a  favorite  resort  of  the  luxurious  class  that 
sailed  these  lovely  seas  in  its  own  yachts,  with  their  bril- 
liantly tinted  sails,  while  Puteoli  was  a  great  commercial 
centre.  Between  these  two  cities,  in  an  indentation  of  the 
coast,  was  Lucrine  Lake,  the  Styx  of  Virgil,  separated 
from  the  sea  by  a  causeway,  the  building  of  which  was 
attributed  to  Hercules.  In  this  lake  were  the  oyster-beds 
that  supplied  the  "Lucrinenses"  of  the  Roman  epicures, 
and  were  praised  even  by  the  poets.  An  artificial  canal, 
built  by  order  of  Augustus,  connected  Lucrine  with  Aver- 
nus,  and  first  dispelled  the  gloomy  superstitions  that  hung 
about  that  lake,  which  Virgil  had  made  the  gate  to  hell, 
and  Homer  the  abode  of  the  dismal  Cimmerii.  In  S.  Paul's 
time  the  lake  was  bordered  by  fine  edifices,  magnificent 
baths  rising  on  its  eastern  margin  ;  but  the  upheaval  of 
1538  filled  up  a  large  part  of  Lake  Lucrine,  and  left  only 
ruins  in  its  neighborhood. 

Baiae  was  then  at  the  zenith  of  its  glory.  Horace  said, 
"  Nothing  in  the  world  can  be  compared  with  the  lovely 
bay  of  Baiae ; "  and  on  its  borders  rose  the  luxurious  villas 
and  imposing  baths  where  the  profligate  Romans  held  their 
orgies  and  hastened  to  their  ruin.  The  remnants  of  these 
edifices  were  tossed  out  into  the  sea ;  in  the  eighth  century 
the  Saracens  devastated  the  city  with  a  cruelty  which  ex- 
ceeded that  of  the  earthquake,  and  a  few  centuries  later 
malaria  completed  its  desolation  ;  it  is  only  now  regaining 
a  tithe  of  its  importance. 

We  know  no  scene  to-day  which  can  be  likened  to  that 
on  the  Bay  of  Puteoli  in  the  first  century  of  our  era  in  any 
considerable  degree ;  and  as  we  trace  the  journeys  of  S. 


270  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Paul,  and  remember  that  he  was  familiar  with  Jerusalem, 
"  the  joy  of  the  whole  earth,"  that  he  saw  the  glories  of 
Athens  and  of  many  cities  now  buried  from  sight  on  the 
coasts  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  landing  at 
Puteoli  journeyed  to  Imperial  Rome,  we  realize  that  all 
the  glories  of  the  earth  were  known  to  him  when  lie 
solemnly  declared  that  he  counted  "  all  things  but  loss  for 
the  excellency  of  the  knowledge  of  Christ  Jesus  my  Lord  : 
for  whom  I  have  suffered  the  loss  of  all  things,  and  do 
count  them  but  dung,  that  I  may  win  Christ." 

Though  S.  Paul  came  to  his  "  brethren  "  a  prisoner,  in 
chains,  having  barely  escaped  the  dangers  of  the  sea,  the 
centurion  Julius  was  no  hard  master,  and  did  not  refuse 
to  rest  at  Puteoli,  as  was  proposed  to  him.  The  Scripture 
does  not  say  in  what  manner  these  seven  days  were  passed ; 
but  we  cannot  doubt  that  he  comforted  his  brethren,  and 
spoke  to  them  as  he  later  wrote  to  the  Ephesians,  asking 
their  prayers  "  that  utterance  may  be  given  unto  me,  that 
I  may  open  my  mouth  boldly,  to  make  known  the  mystery 
of  the  gospel,  for  which  I  am  an  ambassador  in  bonds." 

Traditions  exist,  however,  which  tell  of  the  preaching  of 
Paul,  and  of  numerous  conversions  among  those  who  heard 
of  Jesus  for  the  first  time.  It  is  also  said  that  he  visited 
the  temples,  the  amphitheatre,  and  even  the  tomb  of  Vir- 
gil. Whatever  may  be  our  estimate  of  these  traditions,  we 
may  reasonably  believe  that  S.  Paul  first  preached  in  Italy 
in  the  city  of  Pozzuoli. 

Paul's  stay  at  Pozzuoli  occurred  when  the  city  was  at 
its  best;  for  Nero  had  just  renewed  its  ancient  privileges, 
which  stimulated  its  activity  and  prosperity.  On  the 
mole  enclosing  the  harbor  of  the  merchantmen,  where  S. 
Paul  landed,  the  lighthouse  stood;  and  so  enduring  was 
the  concrete  of  which  its  piers  were  built,  that  sixteen  of 
them  still  remain,  affording  the  most  perfect  existing  ruin 
of  a  Roman  harbor. 


The  Amphitheatre  at 


POZZUOLI,  BALE,  CUALE,  PROCIDA,  AND  ISCHIA.        271 

The  amphitheatre  of  Pozzuoli  is  unusually  perfect,  and 
is  a  splendid  specimen  of  such  structures  which  existed 
in  all  Roman  cities.  This  one  seated  30,000  spectators ; 
here  Nero  entertained  Tiridates,  and  descending  into  the 
arena,  the  emperor  seized  a  lance  from  a  guard  and 
killed  two  bulls  at  one  blow.  Here  S.  Januarius  and  his 
companions  were  exposed  to  wild  beasts  without  harm, 
which  converted  5,000  persons  to  the  religion  of  the  saint. 
The  apartments  of  the  arena  in  which  these  godly  men 
are  believed  to  have  been  confined  are  now  consecrated 
as  a  chapel  called  the  "  Carceri  di  S.  Gennaro."  This 
arena  was  sometimes  flooded  for  the  exhibition  of  naval 
battles,  which  with  bull-fights  and  gladiatorial  contests 
made  up  the  usual  spectacles  of  this  theatre.  The  sub- 
terranean story  for  the  accommodation  of  gladiators  and 
wild  beasts  is  enormously  extensive ;  its  prostrate  columns 
and  other  architectural  fragments  are  picturesquely  veiled 
by  verdant  foliage  and  mosses.  Each  time  one  rambles 
through  these  ancient  theatres,  the  thought  of  the  enor- 
mous sacrifice  of  life  which  occurred  in  them  during  the 
centuries  in  which  Roman  monsters  thus  took  their  pleas- 
ure, grows  more  and  more  appalling. 

The  Temple  of  Serapis,  built  in  the  sixth  century  of 
Rome,  was  not  unearthed  until  1750 ;  and  one  cannot  be 
reconciled  to  the  fact  that  it  was  not  preserved,  with  its 
ornaments,  statues,  and  vases  intact,  or  even  restored  as  it 
might  easily  have  been.  Goths  and  Vandals  could  scarcely 
have  been  more  unappreciative  of  ancient  art  than  Chris- 
tians of  recent  centuries  have  frequently  proved  to  be. 
There  are  fragments  of  other  temples  at  Pozzuoli  and 
remnants  of  the  villa  of  Cicero,  in  which  he  lived  and 
wrote,  and  where  the  Emperor  Hadrian  was  buried. 
Pliny  tells  us  that  when  Cicero  died,  a  warm  spring  burst 
forth,  its  waters  being  beneficial  to  weary  eyes. 

Going  farther  west  from  Pozzuoli,  the  lovely  views  of  its 


272  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

bay  and  coasts  are  still  before  us,  and  we  try  to  fancy  how 
Caligula's  bridge  must  have  disfigured  this  exquisite  pros- 
pect. He  seized  every  vessel  in  the  ports  of  Italy  ;  and 
Suetonius  says  :  — 

"  Caligula  invented  a  new  kind  of  spectacle,  for  he  made  a 
bridge,  about  three  miles  and  a  half  long,  from  Baiae  to  the 
mole  of  Puteoli,  collecting  trading-vessels  from  all  directions, 
mooring  them  in  two  ro.ws  by  their  anchors,  and  spreading 
earth  upon  them  to  form  a  viaduct,  after  the  fashion  of  the 
Appian  Way.  This  bridge  he  crossed  and  recrossed  for  two 
days  together :  the  first  day  mounted  on  a  horse  richly  capari- 
soned, having  on  his  head  a  crown  of  oak  leaves,  armed  with 
a  battle-axe,  a  Spanish  buckler  and  sword,  and  wearing  a  cloak 
of  cloth  of  gold ;  the  following  day,  dressed  as  a  charioteer, 
standing  in  a  chariot,  drawn  by  two  high-bred  horses,  having 
with  him  a  young  boy,  named  Darius,  one  of  the  Parthian  host- 
ages, and  attended  by  a  cohort  of  Praetorian  Guards,  and  a 
number  of  his  friends  in  Gaulish  fashion." 

Various  reasons  have  been  given  for  this  curious  freak 
of  Caligula,  in  which  he  simply  copied  what  Xerxes  had 
done  when  he  bridged  the  Hellespont ;  the  most  satisfac- 
tory one  being  found  in  the  fact  that  an  astrologer  fore- 
told that  Cains  could  no  more  be  emperor  than  he  could 
ride  on  horseback  across  the  Gulf  of  Baiae. 

Leaving  the  shore  and^  skirting  Monte  Nuovo  and  Lake 
Avernus,  we  go  towards  Cumae.  It  is  difficult  to  realize 
that  this  baby  volcano,  less  than  500  feet  high,  was  thrown 
up  in  a  night  in  1538.  Dumas  calls  it  the  great  event  of 
Pozzuoli,  and  says,  — 

"  One  morning  Pozzuoli  awoke,  looked  about,  and  did  not 
know  herself.  Where  she  had  left  a  lake  at  evening  she  found 
a  mountain ;  where  she  had  left  a  forest  she  found  ashes ; 
where  she  left  a  village  she  found  nothing  whatever." 

If  one  is  well  up  in  the  classics,  Lake  Avernus  is  dis- 
appointing. The  "  Tartarean  woods  "  are  gone  ;  no  Cim- 


POZZUOLI,  BALE,  CUMJE,  PROCIDA,  AND  ISCHIA.       273 

merian  gypsies  enliven  the  surrounding  hills,  and  their  city 
of  caves  is  no  longer  shut  in  by  thick  forests.  Few  de- 
scriptions of  any  spot  are  as  inexact  as  this  of  Virgil's 
now  is :  — 

"  Deep  in  the  craggy  gorge  a  cavern  yawned  ; 
A  pitchy  lake  and  forests  black  as  night 
Girdled  its  depths  profound.    No  bird  unharmed 
O'er  that  dread  orifice  might  steer  its  flight,  — 
Such  baneful  exhalation  through  the  air 
Reeked  from  its  murky  jaws  ;  by  Grecians  hence 
Aornos  named." 

Ascending  the  hill  called  Monte  Barbaro,  the  next 
prominent  relic  of  the  past  is  the  Arce  Felice,  which  spans 
a  hollow,  the  banks  of  which  are  filled  with  tombs.  Sixty- 
three  feet  in  height,  this  arch  is  a  striking  and  picturesque 
feature  in  the  landscape ;  it  has  traces  of  having  borne  an 
aqueduct  on  its  summit ;  it  may  have  been  a  gateway  to 
the  town,  and  its  pavement  is  a  part  of  the  old  road  from 
Pozzuoli  to  Cumas. 

This  latter  city  is  believed  to  have  existed  B.  c.  1050, 
and  to  have  been  the  earliest  Greek  settlement  in  Italy. 
Its  influence  on  Italian  civilization  can  scarcely  be  exag- 
gerated ;  all  the  Italian  alphabets  are  derived  from  the 
Cumaean ;  not  only  so,  but  Hellenic  worship  and  culture 
were  diffused  from  this  centre,  and  here  Tarquinius  Super- 
bus  purchased  the  Sibylline  books,  so  long  cherished  at 
Rome. 

The  fifth  century  saw  the  beginning  of  the  decline  of 
Cumae,  and  eight  centuries  later  it  had  become  such  a 
stronghold  for  the  pirates  of  the  Tyrrhenean  seas  that 
its  neighbors,  Naples  and  Aversa,  determined  on  its 
destruction. 

The  hill  of  the  Acropolis  commands  an  exquisite  view, 
and  is  believed  to  be  the  spot  where  the  first  Greek  colony 
in  Italy  had  its  home.  The  broad  blue  sea,  the  Ponza 

18 


274  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Islands,  Ischia,  and  Lake  Fusaro  unite  in  a  prospect  that 
does  honor  to  their  selection  of  a  site.  The  citadel  was 
destroyed  early  in  our  century,  for  the  sake  of  its  materials, 
and  little  remains  of  the  amphitheatre  and  temples  to 
interest  the  usual  traveller ;  while  the  archaeologist  and 
classical  scholar  desire  to  see  the  spot  so  rich  in  historical 
and  legendary  associations. 

The  hill  of  the  Acropolis  is  full  of  caves  and  passages, 
some  of  which  are  believed  to  have  made  a  part  of 

"  that  dim  cave 

Secluded,  where  the  awful  Sibyl  dwells, 
Whose  soul  with  Divination's  mystic  lore 
The  prophet-god  inspires. 

.    Before  the  place 

An  hundred  doors  an  hundred  entries  grace ; 
As  many  voices  issue,  and  the  sound 
Of  Sibyl's  words  as  many  times  rebound." 

The  various  attacks  on  the  citadel  of  Cuma?  have  de- 
stroyed so  many  landmarks  that  it  is  not  possible  to  say 
much  more  than  that  Cumae  was  here ;  each  one  must, 
from  his  own  knowledge  of  its  history,  rebuild  in  imagina- 
tion the  citadel,  the  temple  of  Apollo,  roofed  with  gold, 
and  all  the  ancient  beauty  and  grandeur  of  the  city  of 
oracles. 

South  of  Cumae  is  Lake  Fusaro,  the  Acherusian  Lake, 
celebrated  for  its  oysters  since  classic  days ;  and  hence  the 
road  to  Baiae  passes  ruined  tombs  and  architectural  frag- 
ments which  serve  to  fix  the  thoughts  on  the  past  with  its 
vanished  glories,  until  that  watering-place  of  antiquity  is 
reached  which  was  celebrated  by  poets  and  scholars  for  its 
beauty,  and  disgraced  by  emperors  and  patricians  with  un- 
restrained crimes  and  follies.  Its  situation  is  magnificent ; 
on  the  west  of  the  bay  are  lofty  hills,  whose  precipices 
descend  majestically  to  the  sea.  The  wealthy  Romans  who 
built  villas  here  permitted  no  common  people  to  come  near, 


The  Temple  of  Venus  and  Diana  at  Baice. 


POZZUOLI,  BAI^E,  CUM^E,  PROCIDA,  AND  ISCHIA.        275 

and  an  acre  was  denied  to  men  who  could  buy  a  province 
elsewhere.  Sulla,  Pompey,  Caesar,  Tiberius,  and  Nero  af» 
fected  these  baths,  and,  the  land  not  being  sufficient,  the 
substructures  of  their  palatial  homes  extended  into  the  sea. 
Now,  alas !  there  are  no  reminders  of  luxury  or  pride ;  wars 
and  malaria  have  ravaged  it  and  made  it  to  be  dreaded ; 
and  the  castle  of  Toledo,  on  its  commanding  promontory, 
may  be  called  the  only  monument  of  the  ancient  glory  of 
Baiae,  built  as  it  was  with  the  stones  of  its  temples,  baths, 
and  exquisite  villas.  The  Roman  writers  bear  testimony 
to  the  immorality  of  Baiae ;  Martial  says  that  the  Pene- 
lopes who  came  here  were  changed  to  Helens ;  and  Ponta- 
nus,  in  his  day,  called  it  the  ruin  of  women,  old  and  young 
alike.  But  all  other  crimes  are  insignificant  before  Nero's 
murder  of  his  mother,  on  account  of  which  Tacitus  says  that 
Nero  fled,  —  for  "the  face  of  a  country  cannot  change  its 
aspect  like  the  countenances  of  men ;  the  offensive  prospect 
of  that  sea  and  those  shores  lay  ever  before  his  eyes,  and 
there  were  even  those  who  believed  that  the  sound  of  a 
trumpet  was  heard  from  the  surrounding  hills,  and  that 
wailings  arose  from  Agrippina's  grave." 

Baiae  was  a  favorite  resort  until  the  early  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Joanna,  Ladislaus,  and  Ferdinand  I. 
were  fond  of  coming  here,  and  as  late  as  the  time  of  San- 
nazzaro  parts  of  the  old  city  still  existed ;  a  little  later  it 
was  deserted,  and  is  only  now  beginning  to  regain  life  and 
importance. 

From  Baiae  to  Cape  Misenum  is  not  far,  and  from  this 
headland  one  sees  a  wonderful  panorama.  It  seems  to 
stand  in  the  midst  of  a  grand  convocation  of  the  natural 
features  we  were  taught  to  define  in  our  earliest  study  of 
the  earth's  surface;  and  involuntarily  the  definitions  of 
capes,  headlands,  straits,  bays,  lakes,  and  peninsulas  repeat 
themselves  in  the  practical  side  of  consciousness,  while  the 
aesthetic  side  is  in  an  ecstasy  over  this  vision  of  wonderful 


276  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS, 

beauty.  Here  Misenus,  the  trumpeter  of  JEneas,  was  buried, 
and  here  Tiberius  died. 

The  Roman  port  of  Misenum  consisted  of  three  basins. 
The  inner  one,  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  is  the  Mare 
Morto,  between  the  northwest  boundary  of  which  and  the 
southern  margin  of  Lake  Fusaro  are  the  Elysian  Fields. 
They  are  beautifully  cultivated ;  poplars  and  mulberries 
abound,  and  vines  festoon  all  objects  that  they  can  reach, 
let  them  be  trees  or  the  numerous  tombs  of  the  sailors  who 
have  been  buried  here.  The  vineyards  are  luxuriant  and 
produce  good  wine ;  but  the  purple  light  over  ever-verdant 
and  mossy  meadows,  which  Virgil  here  saw,  does  not  now 
appear,  and  one  can  but  wonder  a  little  at  the  glamour 
which  the  poetic  imagination  makes  so  real  a  thing,  where 
more  commonplace  minds  fail  to  discern  the  least  sugges- 
tion of  such  beauties. 

The  island  of  Procida  —  the  ancient  Prochyta  —  is  gener- 
ally believed  to  have  been  broken  off  from  Ischia.  It  is  two 
and  a  half  miles  long,  and  has  but  one  height,  the  Punta  di 
Rocciola,  on  which  is  the  old  castle,  now  a  house  of  correc- 
tion. The  town  of  Procida  stretches  from  the  shore  up  the 
side  of  the  castle  hill,  and  is  picturesque  with  its  glistening 
white  houses  in  the  midst  of  trees,  vineyards,  orange-groves, 
and  fruit-gardens.  A  large  portion  of  this  island  belonged 
to  John  of  Procida,  the  hero  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers. 

Juvenal  called  Procida  a  dreary  place ;  it  is  now  as 
cheerful  as  the  busy  and  contented  life  of  14,000  inhabi- 
tants can  make  it.  The  industries  are  fruit-raising  and 
fishing.  Many  fruit  vessels  are  owned  here,  and  are  loaded 
for  various  distant  ports.  The  Greek  origin  of  the  inhabi- 
tants may  still  be  recognized  in  the  costumes  of  the  women 
on  May  8  and  September  29,  the  two  principal  fete 
days  of  the  island ;  characteristic  dances  are  then  seen, 
for  which  a  few  years  ago  the  timbrel  was  played  and  the 
tarantella  danced  with  great  spirit. 


POZZUOLI,  BAI^E,  CUM^E,  PROCIDA,  AND  ISCHIA.        277 

The  island  of  Ischia  —  the  vEnaria  and  Inarima  of  the 
ancients  —  is  the  largest  island  near  Naples,  though  not 
so  wonderful  in  its  natural  formation  nor  historically  of 
so  much  interest  as  Capri.  In  the  earliest  days  of  which 
we  have  any  knowledge  of  Ischia,  its  Greek  colonists  fled 
from  it  by  reason  of  its  frequent  earthquakes  and  volcanic 
eruptions.  The  ancient  poets  made  the  depths  of  Monte 
Epomeo  the  prison  of  Typhoaus  as  ^Etna  was  that  of  En- 
celadus ;  but  since  1302  the  struggles  of  the  giant  have 
ceased,  and  no  eruptions  have  occurred.  At  its  summit 
are  a  small  hermitage  and  chapel  hewn  in  the  rock,  dedi- 
cated to  S.  Nicolas,  by  whose  name  the  mountain  is  now 
frequently  called. 

The  Emperor  Augustus  exchanged  Ischia  for  Capri  with 
the  Neapolitans  ;  it  suffered  the  attacks  of  the  Saracens, 
and  in  1135  was  sacked  by  the  Pisans.  From  that  time, 
during  four  centuries,  it  was  the  scene  of  insurrections 
and  invasions,  and  was  frequently  an  asylum  for  the  sov- 
ereigns of  Naples  when  fleeing  from  their  enemies. 

The  names  of  three  famous  women  are  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  Ischia,  —  Costanza  d'Avalos,  Yittoria  Colonna, 
and  the  widow  of  still  another  D'Avalos,  the  Marchioness 
del  Vasto.  Costanza  d'Avalos,  in  1501,  defended  Ischia 
against  the  French,  with  great  skill  and  bravery.  Her 
services  were  rewarded  by  the  settlement  of  the  civil  and 
military  government  of  the  island  on  the  D'Avalos  family, 
which  power  it  retained  until  1734,  when  its  military  com- 
mand was  transferred  to  Naples. 

Ischia  was  the  home  of  Vittoria  Colonna  in  her  girl- 
hood ;  here  she  was  married,  and  here  passed  her  honey- 
moon. It  was  also  the  birthplace  of  her  husband,  Ferdi- 
nand d'Avalos,  Marquis  of  Pescara;  and  after  his  death 
Vittoria  returned  to  live  in  the  castle,  and  give  herself  up 
to  the  grief,  which  she  expressed  not  only  in  her  life,  but 
in  the  many  sonnets  which  commemorate  her  affliction, 


278  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

her  lofty  estimate  of  Pescara's  character,  and  her  undying 
love  for  him.  Here  her  life  was  not  so  lonely  as  would  at 
first  appear ;  for  Costanza,  Marchesa  di  Francavilla,  main- 
tained a  court  which  was  celebrated  throughout  Europe, 
as  especially  favored  by  Apollo  and  the  Muses.  Doubtless 
the  presence  of  Vittoria  was  the  attraction  to  many  of  the 
poets  who  loved  to  linger  here ;  and  Tasso  has  thus  cele- 
brated this  Ischian  Paradise  :  — 

"  Proud  rock !  the  loved  retreat  of  such  a  band 

Of  earth's  best,  noblest,  greatest,  that  their  light 
Pales  other  glories  to  the  dazzled  sight, 
And  like  a  beacon  shines  throughout  the  land. 
If  truest  worth  can  reach  the  perfect  state, 
And  man  may  hope  to  merit  heavenly  rest, 
Those  whom  thou  harborest  in  thy  rocky  breast, 
First  in  the  race  will  reach  the  heavenly  gate. 
Glory  of  martial  deeds  is  thine.    In  thee, 
Brightest  the  world  e'er  saw  or  heaven  gave, 

Dwell  chastest  beauty,  worth,  and  courtesy ! 
Well  be  it  with  thee !    May  both  wind  and  sea 
Respect  thee  :  and  thy  native  air  and  wave 
Be  temper'd  ever  by  a  genial  sky  I " 

T.  Adolphus  Trollope  assures  his  readers  that  worse  son- 
nets than  the  above  can  be  found  by  the  ream  among  the 
imitators  of  Petrarch,  and  adds  that  Vittoria  Colonna  later 
reached  a  much  greater  height.  She  has  told  us,  — 

"  I  only  write  to  vent  that  inward  pain, 
On  which  my  heart  doth  feed  itself,  nor  wills 
Aught  other  nourishment." 

Trollope  says :  — 

"The  enthusiasm  created  by  these  tuneful  wailings  of  a 
young  widow  as  lovely  as  inconsolable,  as  irreproachable  as 
noble,  learned  enough  to  correspond  with  the  most  learned 
men  of  the  day  on  their  own  subjects,  and  with  all  this  a  Co- 
lonna, was  intense.  Vittoria  became  speedily  the  most  famous 


POZZUOLI,  EAIJE,  CUM^E,  PROCIDA,  AND  ISCHIA.      279 

woman  of  her  time,  was  termed  by  universal  consent  'the 
divine,'  and  lived  to  see  three  editions  of  the  grief-cries  which 
escaped  from  her  '  without  her  will.'  " 

The  third  of  these  notable  women  was  the  widow  of 
another  D'Avalos,  the  Marquis  of  Vasto,  who  went  to  live 
at  Ischia  in  1548.  Like  Vittoria  Colonna,  she  was  famed 
for  virtue  and  beauty.  It  is  said  that  at  one  period  of  her 
life  Vittoria  was  called  the  most  beautiful  living  woman  ; 
and  the  beauty  of  the  Marchesa  del  Vasto  when  beyond 
middle  life  was  declared  to  excel  that  of  other  women  in 
their  springtime ;  and  when  more  than  sixty  years  old,  she 
inspired  the  Grand  Prior  of  France  with  a  veritable  passion 
of  love,  so  irresistible  were  her  charms. 

In  1717  Bishop  Berkeley  described  Ischia  in  terms  not 
too  enthusiastic  now,  if  one  sees  it  in  summer.  Indeed, 
he  did  not  name  the  beautiful  orchids  and  ferns,  the  olives 
and  bananas,  nor  the  hedges  of  aloe  and  prickly  pear. 
He  says,  in  writing  to  Pope  :  — 

"The  island  of  Inarime  is  an  epitome  of  the  whole  earth, 
containing  within  a  compass  of  eighteen  miles  a  wonderful  va- 
riety of  hills,  vales,  rugged  rocks,  fruitful  plains,  and  barren 
mountains,  all  thrown  together  in  a  most  romantic  confusion. 
The  air  is,  in  the  hottest  season,  constantly  refreshed  by  cool 
breezes  from  the  sea ;  the  vales  produce  excellent  Indian  corn, 
but  are  mostly  covered  with  vineyards  interspersed  with  fruit- 
trees.  Besides  the  common  kinds,  as  cherries,  apricots, 
peaches,  etc.,  they  produce  oranges,  limes,  almonds,  pome- 
granates, figs,  water-melons,  and  many  other  fruits  unknown 
to  our  climates,  which  lie  everywhere  open  to  the  passenger. 
The  hills  are  the  greater  part  covered  to  the  top  with  vines, 
some  with  chestnut  groves,  and  others  with  thickets  of  myrtle 
and  lentiscus.  But  that  which  crowns  the  scene  is  Mons 
Epomeus.  Its  lower  parts  are  adorned  with  vines  and  other 
fruits  ;  the  middle  afford  pasture  to  flocks  of  goats  and  sheep  ; 


280  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

and  the  top  is  a  sandy  pointed  rock  from  which  you  have  the 
finest  prospect  in  the  world,  surveying  at  one  view,  besides 
several  pleasant  islands  lying  at  your  feet,  a  tract  of  Italy 
about  300  miles  in  length,  from  the  promontory  of  Antium  to 
the  Cape  of  Palinurus." 

The  mineral  waters  of  Ischia  are  greatly  esteemed,  and 
before  1883  the  island  had  become  a  popular  sanitarium. 
Porto  d'  Ischia  has  a  large  bathing-establishment  and  a 
royal  park,  but  Casamicciola  was  the  favorite  resort.  The 
earthquake  of  July  28,  1883,  left  but  a  few  houses  stand- 
ing ;  7,500  lives  were  lost,  and  many  who  escaped  with  life 
were  wounded  and  maimed.  An  Englishman  who  has 
long  resided  in  Naples  gives  a  touching  account  of  the 
generosity  and  kindness  of  the  very  poor  in  Naples  in 
their  sympathy  for  the  sufferers  of  their  own  class  in 
Casamicciola.  Many  Neapolitans  who  could  scarcely  feed 
themselves  and  their  families,  went  with  their  boats  and 
brought  the  Ischians  to  their  poor  homes,  where  they  gave 
them  their  beds  and  the  few  comforts  they  had.  The  re- 
building has  progressed  but  slowly ;  and  the  wooden  sheds, 
hastily  erected  at  the  time  of  the  catastrophe,  are  still  the 
homes  of  many  of  the  people. 

Beautiful  straw  plaiting  is  done  at  Lacco,  where  a  school 
for  this  industry  has  been  established.  In  this  village  is 
the  Cathedral  of  S.  Restituta,  the  patroness  of  the  island, 
whose  fe'te  is  celebrated  on  May  17  by  the  illumination 
of  Monte  Yico.  The  costumes  of  the  Ischiajole  are  fre- 
quently striking  and  attractive. 

The  excursions  about  the  island  are  charming,  and  the 
ascent  of  Epomeo  through  pine  woods  and  vineyards  to 
the  home  of  the  hermit,  cut  in  the  volcanic  rock,  is  full 
of  interest.  Many  of  the  old  towers  which  fortified  the 
island  in  the  days  of  Costanza  d'Avalos,  are  still  pictur- 
esque and  attractive,  rising  amid  gardens  and  vineyards 


POZZUOLI,  BALE,  CUJVOE,  PEOCIDA,  AND  ISCHIA.      281 

as  they  now  do;  and  the  same  lovely  views  that  have 
wrought  their  spell  on  sirens  and  mortals,  from  Parthe- 
nope  to  ourselves,  are  as  enchanting  from  Ischia  as  from 
each  and  every  vantage-ground  about  this  crescent-coasted 
Bay  of  the  Sirens. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

HERCULANEDM,   VESUVIUS,   POMPEII,   SORRENTO,  LA   CAVA, 
AMALFI,   SALERNO,   AND   P^STUM. 

HPHE  excursion  to  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  is  far 
J-  more  interesting  when  made  by  carriage  than  by 
train.  The  suburbs  to  the  east  of  Naples  are  so  thickly 
populated  that  the  boundary  between  the  city  and  S.  Gio- 
vanni a  Teduccio  is  quite  invisible,  and  when  passing  to 
Portici  and  Resina  nothing  indicates  the  division  of  these 
towns.  Street  life  is  seen  to  great  advantage  on  this  drive : 
macaroni  is  hung  out  to  dry  on  all  sides ;  dirty,  ragged 
children  play  games  with  noisy  glee ;  dogs  lie  asleep  in  the 
sun ;  men  smoke  and  idly  loll  about,  while  the  women 
have  many  occupations,  and  yet  find  time  for  plenty  of 
gossip. 

At  Portici  the  road  runs  through  the  court  of  the  palace 
built  by  Carlo  Borbone,  in  which  Murat  preferred  to  live 
while  at  Naples,  and  thence  passes  almost  immediately  into 
Resina,  from  which  point  the  visit  to  Herculaneum  is  made. 
This  is  a  curiously  unpleasant  experience,  and  yet  it  is 
more  emphatically  impressive  of  the  horror  which  de- 
stroyed this  city  and  Pompeii  than  is  the  visit  to  the  latter 
place.  This  underground  darkness,  lighted  by  smoking 
torches,  where  only  bits  of  a  villa,  temple,  or  theatre  can 
be  seen,  where  everything  is  mutilated  and  disjointed,  and 
one  feels  oppressed  for  want  of  air  to  breathe,  is  vastly 
more  dreadful  than  the  open  streets  of  the  excavated 
Pompeii,  where  one  feels  the  sun  and  sees  the  sky. 


Looking  down  the  Street  of  the  Tombs,  Pompeii. 


HERCULANEUM,  VESUVIUS,    POMPEII,  ETC.  283 

The  blackness  and  solidity  of  the  tufa,  which  is  only  cut 
out  with  great  difficulty,  is,  of  itself,  more  depressing  than 
the  ashes  and  rubbish  which  were  so  much  more  easily 
removed  from  Pompeii.  Tradition  attributes  the  founda- 
tion of  this  city  to  Hercules  himself,  and  in  ancient  days 
Oscans,  Etruscans,  and  Samnites  lived  here,  while  in  the 
prosperous  days  of  Rome  it  was  the  site  of  many  patrician 
villas.  After  the  earthquake,  A.  D.  63,  and  the  eruption  of 
79,  other  waves  of  ashes  and  lava  buried  it  to  a  depth  vary- 
ing from  forty  to  one  hundred  feet,  and  it  was  lost  to 
human  knowledge  until  1719,  when  the  Prince  d'Elbceuf, 
in  digging  a  well,  came  upon  parts  of  the  ancient  theatre. 

There  is  but  little  to  be  seen,  as  portions  of  the  exca- 
vations are  filled  up  ;  they  extended  under  Portici  and 
Resina,  and  threatened  to  undermine  these  towns  ;  but  the 
discovery  itself  and  the  little  that  has  been  done  are  of 
vast  interest  to  the  world.  The  bronzes,  mural  decora- 
tions, papyri,  and  especially  the  portrait  statues  of  the  Balbi, 
now  in  the  Naples  Museum,  are  extremely  valuable,  and 
give  to  the  buried  city  the  seeming  of  a  vast  treasure- 
house  which  rolling  centuries  have  effectually  closed,  even 
to  the  irrepressible  curiosity  and  enterprise  of  the  present 
era. 

Beyond  Resina  is  Torre  del  Greco,  a  bustling  town  built 
in  a  most  unsafe  position.  It  has  repeatedly  suffered  from 
eruptions  and  earthquakes ;  but  the  inhabitants  never  hesi- 
tate to  rebuild  what  is  thrown  down,  and  to  live  on  here 
with  a  faith  so  daring  that  it  commands  a  certain  respect 
for  those  who  have  it.  The  Neapolitan  proverb  runs, 
"Napoli  fa  i  peccati,  e  la  Torre  li  paga,"  —  "Naples 
commits  the  sins,  and  la  Torre  pays  for  them." 

From  Torre  del  Greco  many  coral-fishers  go  forth  each 
spring  to  their  arduous  labors  on  the  Sicilian  and  African 
coasts,  and  here  a  great  quantity  of  coral  ornaments  are 
manufactured.  In  June  a  great  popular  festival  is  held  iu 


284  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Torre,  commemorating  the  abolition  of  feudalism  in  1700, 
and  is  called  the  Festa  dei  quattro  Altari. 

The  monastery  of  the  Camaldoli  della  Torre  has  a  safer 
position  than  the  town,  for,  though  situated  on  a  volcanic 
hill,  it  is  not  in  danger  from  lava  streams.  It  commands 
a  splendid  view  of  the  Bay  of  Naples,  and  an  extraordinary 
one  of  the  desolated  sides  of  Vesuvius.  The  fresh  and 
even  Oriental  aspect  of  the  vegetation  which  surrounds  the 
convent ;  its  domes,  and  the  revolving  wheels  of  the  wells, 
and  the  hedges  of  prickly  pear,  —  also  reminders  of  the 
East,  —  help  to  make  an  impressive  contrast  between  the 
estates  of  the  monastery  and  the  black  lava  fields  by  which 
they  are  bordered ;  no  view  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  bay 
surpasses  that  seen  from  the  summit  of  this  hill  of  the 
Camaldoli. 

It  is  not  far  to  Torre  dell'  Annunziata,  which  is  full  of 
life.  Its  manufacture  of  macaroni,  its  fishing,  and  its 
powder-factory  furnish  occupation  for  all  its  people  ;  while 
the  fame  of  its  mineral  waters  attracts  many  invalids  to 
this  charming  spot. 

If  one  does  not  make  the  excursion  to  Vesuvius  from 
Naples  in  the  regulation  manner,  —  under  the  care  of 
Thomas  Cook  &  Sons,  which  is  certainly  the  least  trouble, 
—  it  may  be  made  from  Torre  dell'  Annunziata.  It  is  a 
wonderful  experience,  which  no  one  can  afford  to  lose. 
Goethe  called  Vesuvius  "  a  peak  of  hell  rising  from  para- 
dise," and  a  more  suitable  description  of  this  volcano  could 
scarcely  be  given  in  many  pages ;  volumes  are  required  to 
speak  fully  of  this  wonderful  mountain,  while  all  guide- 
books give  the  information  necessary  to  one  who  sees  it  for 
himself. 

Torre  dell'  Annunziata  is  also  a  convenient  point  from 
which  to  reach  Pompeii,  —  that  wonderful  city  from  whicli 
we  so  largely  draw  our  knowledge  of  the  domestic  life  of 
the  beginning  of  our  era.  The  emotions  experienced  in 


The  House  of  Pansa,  Pompeii. 


HERCULANEUM,   VESUVIUS,  POMPEII,   ETC.  285 

this  visit  differ  as  widely  as  do  the  views  and  tempera- 
ments of  the  visitors,  but  in  any  case  it  is  a  unique  ex- 
perience. Nowhere  else  can  one  so  step  back  into  the  past, 
leaving  century  on  century  behind,  and  bring  himself  into 
intimate  relations  with  the  earliest  decades  of  our  era. 

Pompeii  differs  so  essentially  from  all  other  places  that 
some  time  must  elapse  before  one  can  be  sufficiently  forget- 
ful of  the  usual,  every-day  world  and  its  life  to  comprehend, 
in  any  proper  sense,  the  meaning  and  spirit  of  that  which 
surrounds  him.  He  is  in  the  midst  of  a  past  so  distant 
that  it  has  no  resemblance  to  the  present. 

The  dainty  dwellings  of  a  refined  and  luxurious  people 
are  here,  but  how  simple  in  taste  and  arrangement !  These 
small  homes  with  their  succession  of  tiny  apartments  could 
not  satisfy  the  needs  of  modern  life.  The  court,  with  its 
fountain  in  the  centre,  was  the  gathering-place  for  family 
and  friends.  The  men  lived  in  the  Forum,  the  Baths,  the 
Gymnasium,  or  the  Theatre,  and  prided  themselves  on  their 
city,  its  Acropolis,  its  edifices.  Individual  pride  as  we  now 
know  it,  and  the  strife  by  which  each  man  endeavors  to 
surpass  others  in  his  individual  attainments  and  mode  of 
life,  were  turned  into  widely  differing  channels  in  the  city 
of  antiquity.  Public  life  was  first,  private  life  secondary, 
and  the  women  in  their  apartments  —  the  Gynaeceum  — 
were  luxuriously  indolent,  or,  with  some  slight,  Penelope- 
like  pursuit,  awaited  the  time  when  their  male  relatives 
and  friends  should  turn  to  their  homes  for  a  few  hours  of 
repose. 

Entering  the  theatre  which  crowns  the  hill,  Vesuvius 
looms  before  us  in  awful  grandeur,  while  the  sea  sparkles 
and  shimmers  merrily,  as  if  mocking  all  desolation.  We 
try  to  imagine  what  it  was  like  here  in  the  year  79.  We 
endeavor  to  fancy  it  filled  with  the  gracefully  draped  forms 
that  here  in  open  day,  with  but  an  awning  between  them 
and  the  sky,  reclining  on  the  seats  of  Parian  marble,  listened 


286  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

to  the  tragedy  or  comedy  with  one  portion  of  their  con- 
sciousness, while  another  portion  was  entranced  by  the 
beauty  of  the  surrounding  Nature. 

The  amphitheatre  here,  as  everywhere,  recalls  the  cruelty 
of  which  the  Romans  never  wearied,  and  its  associations 
are  strangely  out  of  keeping  with  the  present  peacef  ulness 
of  this  resurrected  city.  The  baths  with  their  numerous 
apartments,  exquisite  .decorations,  and  fresh  pavements, 
give  the  impression  that  time  must  have  been  more  elastic 
in  Pompeii  than  in  any  city  of  our  day ;  else  how  could  so 
much  of  it  have  been  devoted  to  attaining  that  suppleness 
of  skin  and  muscle  which  the  processes  of  the  Pompeian 
bath  induced  ? 

We  turn  from  these  centres  of  ancient  life  to  the  tombs, 
in  which  death  was  not  made  repulsive  and  lugubrious, 
but  solemn,  with  a  noble  seriousness.  It  was  treated  as 
the  natural  termination  of  life,  —  bringing  sorrow,  indeed, 
to  those  who  still  lived,  but  a  sorrow  free  from  dread  and 
shuddering  doubts. 

The  curious,  narrow  streets,  with  their  stepping-stones 
for  wet  weather,  seem  like  the  paths  of  a  miniature,  make- 
believe  city  ;  the  houses  and  places  of  business  remind  one 
of  a  toy-shop ;  and,  in  a  word,  nothing  has  an  air  of  gran- 
deur and  magnificence  —  rather  that  of  effeminacy  and 
pleasure-seeking. 

One  can  but  wish  that  all  the  wonderful  objects  found 
here  —  the  fresh,  charming  pictures,  bright  as  if  painted 
but  a  day  ;  the  ornaments  of  the  women  ;  the  mosaics, 
statues,  lamps,  vases,  coins,  food,  and  many  other  things  — 
had  been  left  where  found ;  and  even  the  petrified  skele- 
tons of  those  who  in  the  midst  of  life  were  in  death,  so 
that  the  realization  of  the  human  life  that  was  once  here 
might  be  clearer  and  more  impressive. 

But  with  time  and  thought  and  the  subtle  power  which 
helps  us  to  appreciate  conditions  that  we  have  never 


HERCULANEUM,  VESUVIUS,  POMPEII,  ETC.  287 

known,  we  attain  to  a  fuller  sense  of  what  has  happened 
here,  and  involuntarily  Moore's  song  recurs  to  us,  — 
"  I  feel  like  one 

Who  treads  alone 
Some  banquet-hall  deserted, 
Whose  lights  are  fled, 
Whose  garlands  dead, 
And  all  but  he  departed !  " — 

so  well  expressing  one  phase  of  thought  and  feeling  that 
Pompeii  induces.  The  oppressive  silence  and  unspeakable 
loneliness  are  well  expressed  by  Thomas  Gold  Appleton : 

"  The  silence  there  was  what  most  haunted  me. 
Long  speechless  streets,  whose  stepping-stones  invite 
Feet  which  shall  never  come ;  to  left  and  right 
Gay  colonnades  and  courts,  —  beyond,  the  glee, 
Heartless,  of  that  forgetful  Pagan  sea ; 
On  roofless  homes  and  waiting  streets  the  light 
Lies  with  a  pathos  sorrowfuller  than  night." 

And  all  this  sombreness  is  emphasized  by  that  dread 
presence  from  which  there  is  no  escape,  —  Vesuvius,  which 
is  like  the  presiding  genius  of  the  place.  Wherever  one 
goes,  of  whatever  he  thinks,  at  whatever  he  looks,  be  it  the 
ruins  themselves,  or  the  deep  blue  heaven  above,  or  the 
distant  rolling  sea,  \iQfeeh  the  mountain,  mysterious,  awful. 
The  little  wreath  of  smoke  mounting  to  the  sky  slowly, 
quietly,  seems  at  times  to  indicate  the  satisfaction  of  the 
power  that  has  worked  its  will ;  the  desolation  it  has 
wrought  has  sated  its  desire  for  evil.  But  again  this  ever- 
breathing  monster  impresses  one  as  threatening  to  vomit 
forth  its  flame,  its  lava,  and  its  ashes,  pouring  out  whole- 
sale death  on  man  and  beast,  on  tree  and  vine  and  flower ; 
and  as  one  reflects  on  this  side  of  its  possibilities,  he  is 
possessed  by  an  almost  absolutely  compelling  instinct  to 
flee,  while  he  wonders  at  the  courage  of  those  who  on  its 
mid-height  cultivate  the  vine,  and  live  in  the  villages  upon 
its  sides  and  at  its  feet. 


288  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

On  two  occasions  I  have  been  in  Naples  when  Vesuvius 
was  pouring  out  many  small  streams  of  lava.  By  day  the 
appearance  of  the  mountain  was  not  unusual,  except  that 
occasionally  showers  of  small  stones  and  ashes  were 
thrown  out  and  made  the  air  thick  about  the  crater  for  a 
few  moments.  But  at  night,  from  our  windows  in  Naples, 
it  presented  a  never-to-be-forgotten  spectacle.  All  down 
its  sides  innumerable  serpent-like  streams  of  living  fire 
were  writhing,  producing  an  effect  of  awful  power  and 
wrath,  such  as  no  picture  drawn  with  brush  or  pen  could 
reproduce. 

It  was  strangely  fascinating  in  its  unusualness  and  in 
the  thoughts  that  it  induced ;  fascinating  even  in  the 
dread  of  what  might  occur  at  any  moment.  Although  at 
a  safe  distance  and  free  from  fear,  it  was  difficult  to  look 
away  from  the  volcano,  more  difficult  to  go  to  bed,  and 
sleeping  soundly  was  quite  out  of  the  question.  In 
the  daytime,  when  I  stood  on  moving  streams  of  half- 
cooled  lava,  they  seemed  to  move  very  slowly ;  but  when 
darkness  brought  out  their  fiery  glow,  they  appeared  to 
hasten,  as  if  in  search  of  prey.  At  times  these  red-hot 
rivers  of  lava  assumed  the  shapes  of  reptiles,  crocodiles, 
lizards,  and  the  like ;  and  one  was  almost  forced  to  ques- 
tion, as  did  Madame  de  Stael,  whether  benevolence  alone 
directs  the  phenomena  of  creation,  or  whether  some  secret 
principle  of  ferocity  shows  its  power  in  them.  At  least, 
the  spectacle  of  Vesuvius  in  action  explains  how  men  have 
been  led  to  believe  in  an  evil  power  which  is  sufficient  to 
overcome  at  times  the  designs  of  a  merciful  Providence; 
and  the  conclusion  of  Martial's  lines  affords  a  momentary 
satisfaction,  — 

"  Vesuvio,  covered  with  the  fruitful  vine, 
Here  flourished  once,  and  ran  with  floods  of  wine ; 
Here  Bacchus  oft  to  the  cool  shades  retired, 
And  his  own  native  Nisa  less  admired ; 


HERCULANEUM,  VESUVIUS,  POMPEII,   ETC.  289 

Oft  to  the  mountain's  airy  top  advanced, 

The  frisking  satyrs  on  the  summits  danced  ; 

Alcides  here,  here  Venus  graced  the  shore, 

Nor  loved  her  favorite  Lacedaemon  more. 

Now  piles  of  ashes,  spreading  all  around, 

In  undistinguished  heaps  deform  the  ground  ; 

The  gods  themselves  the  ruined  seats  bemoan, 

And  blame  the  mischiefs  that  themselves  have  done." 

Returning  from  Pompeii  to  Torre  dell'  Annunziata  and 
proceeding  east,  Castellammare  is  soon  reached.  It  is  a 
busy,  unattractive  town  until  one  ascends  to  the  Quissisana, 
already  mentioned.  Here  one  has  magnificent  views,  and 
the  delightful,  shaded  walks  are  thronged  by  Neapolitans 
in  summer,  while  many  foreigners  come  here  in  spring  and 
autumn  to  drink  the  mineral  waters,  make  donkey  excur- 
sions, and  climb  Monte  S.  Angelo,  to  the  Cappella  de  S. 
Michele,  where,  on  the  1st  of  August,  a  miracle  is  said 
to  occur,  of  no  less  importance  than  the  sweating  of 
the  statue  of  S.  Michael.  A  monk  collects  the  miracu- 
lous moisture  on  bits  of  cotton-wool,  puts  them  in  little 
bottles,  and  distributes  them  to  those  who  have  faith  in  the- 
miracle. 

The  drive  from  Castellammare  to  Sorrento  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  world,  passing  through  lovely  valleys  and  over 
promontories  affording  magnificent  views  of  the  bay,  its* 
shores  and  its  islands.  Vineyards  and  olive  plantations 
are  numerous ;  and  when  the  Piano  di  Sorrento  is  reached, 
the  luxurious  beauty  of  its  vegetation  is  a  delight.  This 
plain  is  intersected  by  ravines,  and  sheltered  from  harsh 
winds  by  surrounding  mountains.  Orange,  fig,  pomegran- 
ate, and  mulberry  trees  abound ;  the  aloe  lends  an  Oriental 
aspect,  and  the  olive  adds  its  restful  coloring  in  this  garden 
of  Campania. 

The  road  is  a  veritable  corniche,  with  pinnacles,  crags, 
and  fortress-like  rocks  on  one  hand,  while  on  the  other  lie 
huge  boulders  that  have  split  off  and  fallen  even  into  the 

19 


290  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

waves  themselves.  Cultivation  has  even  crept  into  the 
gorges  in -the  mountains,  so  that  their  sides  glow  with 
verdant  trees  and  shrubs  interspersed  with  the  blossom 
and  fruit  of  the  orange  and  with  paler  lemons  which  fill 
the  air  with  their  delicious  aroma.  The  orange  thrives 
wonderfully  here,  and  strikes  its  roots  into  every  possible 
crevice,  —  beside  wild  precipices  and  tumble-down  flights 
of  steps,  in  dilapidated  courts,  forsaken  gardens,  and  wild 
fields  alike.  Its  delhnous  fragrance  and  luscious  fruit  are, 
like  God's  rain,  for  the  just  and  the  unjust,  the  prince  and 
the  beggar  alike. 

Many  brilliantly  tinted  blossoms  add  their  beauty  to  the 
vegetation,  while  the  colors  of  sea  and  sky  are  indescrib- 
able. The  sea  changes  with  emerald,  ruby,  topaz,  and 
sapphire  tints,  from  the  varying  shadows  and  lights  above 
and  the  different  colors  of  the  rocks  beneath,  while  the 
sky  serenely  maintains  its  heavenly  azure  until  the  evening 
glow  deepens,  and,  inflaming  the  western  horizon,  flashes 
up  the  purplish  wine-color,  the  scarlet  and  orange,  to  mid- 
heaven,  and  is  reflected  in  the  sea,  while  the  distant  coasts 
grow  black,  the  little  boats  that  were  visible  a  moment 
before  are  no  longer  seen,  and  a  softly  stealing  darkness 
broods  over  the  waves. 

High  up  toward  the  twinkling  stars  the  atmosphere  has 
a  luminous,  pearly  radiance  that  makes  one  wonder  into 
what  entrancing  heights  he  might  come,  could  he  but  soar 
on  wings  from  the  topmost  crag  of  Capri,  which  in  this 
light  is  like  a  ghost  of  the  island  we  saw  an  hour  ago. 

Sorrento  is  built  on  three  ravines,  all  crowded  with  trees. 
The  town  hangs  over  the  sea,  and  its  pergolas  and  shrines 
are  high  in  air,  while  steep,  narrow  flights  of  steps  —  some- 
times cut  in  the  rocks  and  again  hung  on  them  —  afford 
a  precarious  means  of  passing  here  and  there  among  the 
draping  vines,  the  ivy,  the  cytizus,  and  hundreds  of  blos- 
soming plants.  Little  bridges  overhang  the  ravines  at  a 


Panorama  of  Sorrento. 


HERCULANEUM,  VESUVIUS,  POMPEII,  ETC.  291 

tremendous  height  above  the  water.  S.  Antonio,  who  in 
836  so  beat  the  Prince  of  Beneventum  with  a  stick  as  to 
save  Sorrento  from  his  powerful  grasp,  is  still  the  pro- 
tector of  the  city  and  its  bridges,  and  is  much  reverenced 
and  loved  by  its  people.  They  are  civil  to  strangers,  and 
as  a  rule,  have  a  more  robust  physique  than  the  Neapoli- 
tans ;  in  their  festa  costumes  they  are  exceedingly  effective 
and  picturesque. 

Many  delightful  excursions  are  made  from  Sorrento ;  and 
the  foreigners  sojourning  there,  after  a  morning  bath  and 
mid-day  siesta,  when  the  sun  is  dropping  to  the  west,  usu- 
ally visit  some  interesting  point  on  shore,  or  some  island 
that  was  loved  by  the  sirens  ;  in  the  later  evening  there  is  a 
gathering  in  the  Piazza,  where  there  is  music.  Where,  out- 
side Sorrento,  can  so  much  be  found  to  help  one  to  live  in 
utter  forgetfulness  of  haste  and  care? 

No  traces  of  the  Roman  Surrentum  remain,  and  the  most 
interesting  associations  with  the  past  now  cherished  are 
connected  with  Torquato  Tasso,  whose  statue  stands  in 
the  Piazza,  and  whose  birthplace  is  claimed  to  be  a  part  of 
the  hotel  which  bears  his  name.  Of  this  there  are  grave 
doubts  ;  but  that  he  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Sorrento 
is  true,  and  after  his  captivity  of  seven  years  at  Ferrara  he 
embarked  from  Caeta,  disguised  as  a  shepherd,  and,  reach- 
ing Sorrento,  made  himself  known  to  his  sister  and  her 
sons.  Her  neighbors  believed  him  to  be  a  cousin  from 
Bergamo. 

In  the  garden  of  Tasso's  sister,  the  Vigna  Sersale,  one 
has  a  view  which  well  repays  the  trouble  of  reaching  it. 
Here  are  splendid  specimens  of  the  umbrella  pine ;  and 
looking  over  a  picturesque  valley  and  across  the  ever- 
shimmering  sea,  the  cliffs  of  Capri  loom  up  in  wild  and 
jagged  grandeur. 

If  one  goes  from  Sorrento  to  La  Cava  dei  Tirreni,  he  is 
within  easy  reach  of  several  points  of  interest.  Cava  is  a 


292  NAPLES  AND  ITS   ENVIRONS. 

favorite  resort,  except  in  winter.  It  consists  principally  of  a 
street  with  arcades.  The  one  object  worthy  of  notice  is  its 
famous  abbey  ;  but  the  whole  neighborhood  is  picturesque, 
and  affords  delightful  walks  and  donkey  rides. 

After  the  convent  of  Monte  Cassino,  no  other  in  South- 
ern Italy  is  so  celebrated  as  La  Trinita  della  Cava.  Its 
history  is  most  interesting,  and  its  position,  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  mountains,  is  romantic  and  beautiful ;  "  a 
Swiss  valley,  with  the  sky  and  vegetation  of  Southern 
Italy,"  well  describes  the  way  leading  to  it.  The  archives 
of  this  abbey  are  of  inestimable  value,  comprising  more 
than  100,000  valuable  parchments  as  well  as  priceless 
manuscripts,  such  as  the  "  Codex  Legum  Longobarum," 
the  oldest  digest  of  Lombard  law,  and  a  Bible  on  vellum 
attributed  to  the  seventh  century.  There  is  a  mine  of 
historical  lore  in  this  library,  including  not  only  judicial, 
ecclesiastical,  and  political  history,  but  also  that  of  mediae- 
val, domestic,  and  social  life,  especially  of  the  Lombard 
period. 

The  church  of  the  monastery  has  the  tombs  of  Queen 
Sibilla  and  several  noted  ecclesiastics ;  and  it  is  said  that 
Pope  Calixtus  III.  was  a  prisoner  in  this  monastery,  to 
which  he  was  consigned  by  Alexander  III. 

Salvator  Rosa  lived  at  La  Cava,  and  studied  these  soli- 
tudes, as  may  be  readily  seen  in  some  of  his  works. 

There  is  a  curious  custom  at  La  Cava  of  covering  up  the 
small  figs  in  the  autumn,  and  exposing  them  to  ripen  in  the 
spring;  the  figs  here  are  of  unusual  excellence.  Another 
custom  is  that  of  catching  pigeons  in  October.  It  is  the 
popular  amusement  of  the  upper  classes,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose little  towers  have  been  erected  on  all  the  hills ;  as  the 
pigeons  pass  the  towers,  small  white  pebbles  are  thrown 
out  which  the  birds  mistake  for  food,  and  descending  to 
eat  it,  they  are  caught  in  nets. 

A  delightful  excursion  may  be  made  from  La  Cava  to 


HERCULANEUM,  VESUVIUS,  POMPEII,  ETC.  293 

Amalfi,  Salerno,  and  Paestum.  One  who  sees  Amalfi  to- 
day realizes  with  difficulty  that  this  little  town  with  its 
paper,  soap,  and  macaroni  factories  was  a  rival  of  the  great 
mediaeval  seaports,  owned  factories  and  trading-stations  in 
the  Levant,  and  was  once  called  the  first  naval  power  in 
Europe.  At  all  events,  its  maritime  code  is  now  a  part  of 
modern  international  law. 

It  is  shut  off  from  all  the  world  by  bulwarks  of  preci- 
pices on  the  one  side,  and  is  washed  by  the  sea  on  the 
other.  It  is  most  picturesque  in  effect,  being  built  on  the 
sides  of  a  gorge,  and  is  a  medley  of  loggias,  cupolas,  domes, 
and  balconies,  all  rich  in  colors,  strongly  contrasting  with 
its  whitewashed  roofs. 

Amalfi  has  no  classical  associations,  but  was  of  great 
importance  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Mentioned  first  in  the 
sixth  century,  it  was  governed  by  its  own  doges  a  hun- 
dred years  later,  and  here  the  Emperor  of  Constantinople 
founded  a  court  for  the  adjustment  of  all  naval  questions. 
The  founding  of  the  Order  of  the  Hospitallers  of  S.  John 
may  be  attributed  to  the  merchants  of  Amalfi.  After  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century  the  Pisans  were  the  declared 
enemies  of  Amalfi ;  in  one  of  their  attacks  they  stole  and 
carried  away  the  priceless  Pandects  of  Justinian,  which,  in 
turn,  the  Florentines  robbed  from  them  three  centuries 
later.  At  length  the  Pisans  forced  Amalfi  to  secure  peace 
by  tribute  money,  and  from  that  day  its  power  was  gone ; 
it  also  suffered  an  inroad  of  the  sea,  and  gradually  faded 
and  wasted  into  its  present  unimportance. 

If  one  can  escape  the  beggars  of  Amalfi,  it  is  a  most 
interesting  place,  and  is  concisely  described  by  Hans  Chris- 
tian Andersen  in  his  charming  improvvisatore :  — 

"  The  city  lies,  if  I  may  say  so,  singularly  piled  upon  itself. 
Beside  it,  the  narrow  Ghetto  in  Rome  would  be  a  Corso.  The 
streets  are  little  passages  between  the  tall  houses,  and  right 
through  them.  Now  one  comes  through  a  door  into  a  long 


294  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

landing-place,  with  small  openings  on  the  sides  leading  into 
dark  chambers,  then  into  a  narrow  lane  between  brickwork  and 
walls  of  rock,  steps  up  and  steps  down,  a  half-dark  labyrinth 
of  dirty  passages.  I  often  did  not  know  whether  it  was  a  room 
or  a  lane  in  which  we  were.  In  most  places  lamps  were  burn- 
ing ;  and  if  it  had  not  been  so,  although  it  was  midday,  it 
would  have  been  dark  as  night." 

The  road,  or  Riviera,  between  Ainalfi  and  Salerno  excels 
even  that  between  Nice  and  Genoa  in  grandeur  and  pictur- 
esqueness,  and,  above  all,  in  coloring.  Dean  Alford  says, 
in  speaking  of  the  sea  as  it  appears  from  this  point :  "  It  is 
not  blue,  it  is  not  purple,  it  is  not  green,  but  it  is  all  these 
by  turns,  nay,  all  of  these  together,  flashing  into  and  flash- 
ing through  one  another,  and  passing  in  the  distance  into 
an  indescribable  blended  hue  of  all  three,  —  the  reflection 
of  the  amethyst  in  the  surface  of  the  turquoise." 

The  extreme  irregularity  of  the  coast  is  most  pictur- 
esque. Each  little  bay  is  bordered  by  tiny  towns  and  vil- 
lages, with  quaint  towers  and  richly  tinted  old  walls  and 
houses,  and  these  are  separated  by  steep  hills  and  preci- 
pices, on  the  sides  of  which  still  other  towns  are  piled  up, 
while  on  the  promontories  rise  curiously  machicolated 
towers. 

Salerno,  the  ancient  Salernum,  is  very  interesting  his- 
torically, and  has  retained  to  this  day  its  precedence  as 
being  the  chosen  residence  of  the  aristocracy  of  its  sur- 
rounding country.  It  has  also  preserved  its  mediaeval 
characteristics  far  more  than  other  cities  of  the  peninsula, 
and  its  history  is  involved  with  many  most  interesting 
episodes  and  men.  Here  died  in  exile  "  the  Caesar  of  spirit- 
ual conquest,  the  great  and  inflexible  assertor  of  the  su- 
premacy of  the  sacerdotal  order,"  Gregory  VII.,  to  whom 
Pius  IX.  erected  a  fine  statue ;  it  is  in  that  cathedral  of 
S.  Matteo  which  Forsyth  described  as  "  a  pile  so  antique 
and  so  modern,  so  repaired  and  rhapsodic,  that  it  exhibits 


The  Temple  of  Neptune  at  Pcestum. 


HERCULANEUM,  VESUVIUS,  POMPEII,  ETC.  295 

patches  of  every  style,  and  is  in  no  style  itself."  In 
the  same  place  is  buried  Margaret  of  Durazzo,  wife  of 
Charles  III.,  and  many  other  men  and  women  whose  names 
send  our  thoughts  back  to  ancient  times  and  deeds.  We 
remember  that  the  heirs  of  the  Angevine  kings  were  known 
as  Princes  of  Salerno ;  that  here  the  son  of  William  the 
Conqueror  was  treated  for  the  cure  of  his  wound  received 
in  Palestine,  from  which  his  wife  Sibylla  had  sucked  the 
first  poison.  And  this  brings  to  mind  those  great  schools 
which  flourished  at  Salerno,  and  the  philosophers  and  wise 
men  who  went  forth  from  them,  of  which  we  have  already 
spoken.  For  us,  at  this  day,  the  fact  that  it  was  such  a 
centre  of  learning  has  more  interest  than  the  story  of  its 
ecclesiastical,  princely,  or  warlike  associations. 

Its  school  of  medicine  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Saracens,  and  fostered  by  Charlemagne.;  Petrarch  called 
Salerno  Fans  Medicince,  and  Thomas  Aquinas  declared  it 
to  be  as  remarkable  for  medicine  as  was  Bologna  for 
law,  or  Paris  for  science.  Other  branches  of  learning 
were  also  carried  to  an  unusual  perfection  in  Salerno,  and 
from  that  city  went  forth  an  influence  which  had  an  impor- 
tant effect  on  the  thought  of  all  Europe.  Its  schools  were 
much  enriched  by  Frederick  II.  The  cathedral  is  surrounded 
by  twenty-eight  very  beautiful  antique  columns  from  the 
ruined  temples  of  Paestum,  about  twenty-four  miles  from 
Salerno.  This  Poseidonia,  or  City  of  Neptune,  was  very 
ancient,  —  the  Romans  conquered  it  B.  c.  273  ;  but  so  deadly 
was  its  malaria  that  it  rapidly  declined.  Its  walls,  three 
miles  in  length,  are  still  discernible,  and  the  eastern  gate 
still  perfect. 

The  temples  of  Psestum  are  very  beautiful, —  perhaps 
none  outside  of  Athens  so  well  show  the  full  effect  and 
majestic  simplicity  of  Doric  architecture ;  but  as  all  guide- 
books give  their  measurements  and  describe  their  peculiar 
features,  we  prefer  to  speak  of  the  roses,  blooming  twice  a 


296  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

year,  and  breathing  a  fragrance  such  as  is  rarely  found  else- 
where, and  still  sweetening  this  poisonous  air  in  May  and 
November,  although  the  vandalism  of  travellers  has  left 
but  a  few  plants.  The  violets  of  Paestum,  too,  have  been 
famed  since  Martial  wrote,  but  like  the  roses  have  been 
almost  exterminated.  When  beholding  the  ruin  of  this 
city  which  must  sometime  have  been  so  rich  and  splendid, 
one  must  sincerely  sympathize  with  Lord  Carlisle  when  he 
wrote  thus  of  these  temples  :  — 

"  'T  is  past  —  the  echoes  of  the  plain  are  mute, 
E'en  to  the  herdsman's  voice  or  shepherd's  flute ; 
The  toils  of  art,  the  charms  of  nature  fail, 
And  death  triumphant  rides  the  tainted  gale. 
From  the  lone  spot  the  trembling  peasants  haste ; 
A  wild,  the  garden ;  and  the  town,  a  waste. 
But  they  are  still  the  same  —  alike  they  mock 
Th'  invader's  menace,  and  the  tempest's  shock. 
Such,  ere  the  world  had  bow'd  at  Caesar's  throne 
Ere  yet  proud  Rome's  all-conquering  name  was  known, 
They  stood  —  and  fleeting  centuries  in  vain 
Have  pour'd  their  fury  o'er  th'  enduring  fane ! 
Such,  long  shall  stand ;  proud  relics  of  a  clime, 
Where  man  was  glorious,  and  his  works  sublime ; 
While  in  the  progress  of  their  long  decay, 
Thrones  sink  to  dust,  and  nations  pass  away." 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE  ISLAND   OP  CAPEI. 

A  LTHOUGH  the  island  of  Capri  is  but  eleven  miles 
«tA.  in  circumference,  it  is  a  miniature  world.  Its  his- 
tory begins  with  the  dawn  of  the  kingdoms  and  peoples  of 
whom  we  know;  the  myths  of  the  ancients  are  associ- 
ated with  it;  the  history  of  Rome  tells  its  story  at 
important  periods;  it  has  sustained  sieges  in  modern 
warfare ;  has  been  an  apple  of  discord  between  the  Eng- 
lish, French,  and  Italians,  and  is  now  a  lovely  retreat  from 
the  bustling  life  of  to-day,  and  a  sanitarium  for  Naples 
and  the  rest  of  the  world;  while  it  has  lost  somewhat  of 
its  ingenuousness,  and  thereby  its  original  charm  for  the 
artists  of  all  lands. 

Within  its  narrow  confines  all  the  mysteries  and  pas- 
sions of  humanity  are  known.  Birth  begins,  and  death 
ends  life ;  love  makes  its  sweet  sacrifice  of  self,  and  hate 
grows  into  murder ;  rivalry  incites  to  attainments,  humble 
though  they  may  be ;  and  even  ambition  here  finds  a  place, 
and  pushes  the  children  of  this  Cephorim  —  the  villages  — 
out  into  the  great  world,  where  they  find  nothing  of  the 
essential  realities  that  does  not  exist  here,  only  more  of 
them  in  quantity. 

Capri  is  first  seen  from  a  distance  by  the  traveller,  and 
has  been  likened  by  various  writers  to  very  different 
objects.  Jean  Paul  compared  it  to  a  sphinx  ;  Gregorovius 
to  a  splendidly  carved  sarcophagus,  with  an  emperor 
extended  on  it;  but  I,  a  much  humbler  writer,  have  had 


298  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

in  mind  a  far  more  homely  comparison.  Most  American 
girls  have  a  period  of  domesticity,  a  bread  and  cake  baking- 
mania,  in  the  course  of  which  they  have  an  experience 
with  occasional  loaves  that  rise  to  an  incredible  height 
into  excrescences  and  cracking  summits  which  are  delight- 
ful to  gaze  upon;  but,  alas!  when  those  loaves  are  cut, 
hollow  caves  are  revealed  in  their  depths,  and  unexpected 
openings,  which,  while  they  would  do  very  well  as  grottos 
in  an  island,  are  not  desirable  in  loaves,  and  sadly  detract 
from  the  symmetry  of  slices.  Such  a  loaf,  to  me, 
resembles  Capri. 

I  know  that  those  who  are  wise  in  such  matters,  whose 
opinions  I  ought  to  accept,  teach  that  Capri  is  a  portion 
of  the  promontory  of  Sorrento,  which  has  broken  off  and 
anchored  itself  a  short  distance  —  about  three  miles  — 
away.  But  my  theory,  which  I  like  much  better,  is  that 
on  some  occasion,  when  the  depths  of  earth  and  sea  and 
"the  waters  under  the  earth"  were  boiling,  and  Vesuvius 
and  ^Btna,  and  scores  of  smaller  craters  all  about  this 
region,  were  smoking  and  vomiting  flame  and  lava  and  red- 
hot  stones  and  ashes,  when  "  the  sea  seemed  to  roll  back 
upon  itself,"  and  the  whole  earth  was  shaken  to  its 
foundations,  a  huge  bubble  was  thrown  up  in  the  sea, 
which,  surrounded  by  the  air  above  and  the  water  below, 
cooled  into  the  skeleton  of  Capri.  The  ages  have  dressed 
parts  of  it  in  verdure,  vines,  and  blossoms,  leaving  many 
of  its  bones  still  bare,  to  assure  us  that  it  is  strongly  built 
upon  its  bed,  and  is  something  more  than  a  hanging 
garden.  Cherishing  such  a  theory,  one  cannot  hope  to  be 
considered  a  scientific  thinker. 

There  are  those  who  "see"  Capri  in  a  day's  excursion, 
as  they  are  wise  to  do  if  they  have  no  more  time  to  give 
it;  but  weeks  are  not  too  long  for  its  enjoyment,  and 
while  there  is  no  luxury  in  its  inns,  there  is  cleanliness 
and  all  needful  comfort.  Each  day  that  one's  stay  is 


THE  ISLAND  OF   CAPRI.  299 

prolonged,  the  beauty  and  mystery  of  the  island,  of  the 
surrounding  sea  and  the  cities  and  promontories  across 
the  glittering  bay,  above  which  Vesuvius  towers  in  awful 
grandeur,  become  more  impressive,  while  there  seems  to 
steal  over  one  a  dim  appreciation  of  the  supreme  wisdom 
and  power  which  fills  the  universe. 

The  earliest  ruler  of  Capri,  of  whom  we  have  know- 
ledge, was  the  Greek  Telone,  who  lived  eight  centuries 
B.  c. ;  but  it  is  believed  that  a  Phoenician  colony  had  pre- 
viously existed  here,  and  both  Virgil  and  Tacitus  speak 
of  the  Teleboans,  who  preceded  the  Greeks.  In  the 
Phoenician  language,  the  name  of  the  island,  Cephorim, 
signifies  "  two  cities ; "  and  there  are  now,  as  there  have 
ever  been,  Capri  and  Ana  • —  or  Upper —  Capri. 

Tradition  teaches  that  the  Greeks  of  Capri  were  skilful 
in  the  games  of  the  paleestra,  and  unusual  in  their  grace 
and  strength.  Far-off  ancestors  as  they  are  of  the  present 
Capriotes,  the  dark,  low-browed  women,  with  their  hair 
knotted  low  on  the  back  of  the  head,  in  which  a  silver 
arrow  gleams,  and  their  free,  graceful  carriage,  involun- 
tarily recall  the  figures  of  Hellenic  art.  The  men  are 
farmers,  vine-growers,  and  fishermen.  They  are  fre- 
quently large  and  powerful.  Many  of  them  are  handsome ; 
and  their  brown  faces,  full  of  life,  are  very  striking 
beneath  their  Phrygian  caps.  The  population  varies  but 
little  from  4,500;  and,  taken  for  all  in  all,  while  they  are 
very  poor,  they  are  peaceful  and  contented,  courteous  in 
manner,  vivacious,  and  cheerfully  hard-working. 

Many  of  the  young  men,  the  larger  number  being  from 
Anacapri,  go  each  spring  in  search  of  coral  for  the  mer- 
chants of  Torre  del  Greco.  Some  of  their  voyages  are 
long,  and  they  bring  home  coins  and  various  trifles  to 
their  sisters  and  sweethearts,  with  many  tales  of  "  heathen 
lands,"  with  which  to  shorten  the  long  winter  evenings. 
On  their  return,  in  the  autumn.,  those  who  have  a  hundred 


300  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

ducats  —  about  eighty  dollars  —  can  wed  their  true  loves, 
and  settle  down  for  life,  so  few  are  the  wants  of  these 
people.  The  bits  of  coral  that  are  offered  to  the  stranger, 
as  he  walks  about  Capri,  are  gathered  on  the  island  itself 
by  the  children,  who  weave  little  straw  baskets  and  put 
in  them,  with  the  coral,  small,  pearly  shells,  starfish, 
and  the  like,  and  ask  one  to  buy  so  prettily  that  a  collec- 
tion of  them  is  made  quite  unawares. 

One  is  impressed  by  the  srnallness  of  everything  in 
Capri.  The  piazza  is  very  small,  and,  with  its  surround- 
ings, has  the  general  air  of  what  in  our  childhood  we 
called  "  a  make-believe ; "  the  streets,  through  which  no 
carriages  roll,  are  so  narrow  that  but  two  persons  can 
walk  abreast;  the  houses  are  small,  white,  and  pictur- 
esque, with  their  flat  roofs  and  domes  and  covering  of 
luxuriant  vines.  On  the  roofs  —  from  which,  at  evening, 
the  Capriotes  are  accustomed  to  gaze  on  the  sunset-tinted 
sea  —  are  flowers ;  oleanders,  hortensias,  and  other 
familiar  plants,  whose  blossoms  in  this  sea  air  are  large 
and  rich  in  color.  The  inside  rooms  are  arched,  and 
frequently  open  on  an  arched  loggia,  over  which  grows  a 
grape-vine ;  and  here  again  are  flowers.  If  the  house  opens 
on  a  garden,  near  the  door  is  a  pergola,  or  arbor,  with 
rows  of  white  plastered  pillars,  twined  with  vines,  which 
also  cover  the  arbor;  and  the  whole  reminds  one  of  a 
temple  arcade  or  a  cloister,  and  gives  to  the  whole  house 
a  touch  of  antique  grace  and  elegance,  such  as  more 
elaborate  attempts  usually  fail  to  attain. 

Here  and  there  are  palms.  The  numerous  carob-trees 
are  large  and  vigorous,  while  the  cypress  and  pine,  the  wal- 
nut and  chestnut,  are  in  lesser  numbers.  The  mulberry 
and  oak  flourish  in  abundance,  as  do  the  olive,  fig,  orange, 
and  lemon,  all  plentifully  yielding  fruit  of  great  size  and 
beauty,  while  there  is  a  profusion  of  the  prickly  pear, 
which  well  accords  with  the  semi-tropical  aspect  of  the 


THE  ISLAND  OF  CAPRI.  301 

island.  All  sorts  of  sweet-scented  herbs  spring  out  of 
crevices  and  crannies,  from  which  the  light  winds  bring 
whiffs  of  spicy  fragrance.  The  ivy,  blackberry,  and  clem- 
atis drape  the  bare  rocks  with  beauty;  while  the  yellow 
broom  throws  its  golden,  and  the  caper  bush  its  white 
and  lilac,  coloring  from  walls  and  ledges  everywhere. 
The  indigenous  flora  of  the  island  numbers  800  species, 
—  the  caper  bush,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  island, 
being  the  most  beautiful  of  them  all.  The  olive-oil  of 
Capri  rivals  that  of  the  mainland;  and  while  the  grapes  are 
not  so  luscious  as  those  of  some  other  localities,  the  "  vino 
Tiberiano  "  is  choice,  and  famous  for  its  glowing  richness. 

Many  of  the  vine-growers  are  tenants  on  their  land,  the 
owners  living  in  Naples.  As  a  rule,  their  rent  is  from 
eighty  to  a  hundred  dollars  a  year;  and  when  the  grape 
disease  attacks  the  vines,  there  is  great  distress  for  both 
tenant  farmers  and  those  who  own  their  vineyards.  A 
summer  festival  is  observed  as  a  sort  of  penance,  and 
sacrifice  offered  to  ward  off  the  grape  disease,  which  is 
religious  in  its  intention,  but  Bacchic  in  its  aspect.  Its 
picturesqueness  accords  so  perfectly  with  what  one  ima- 
gines as  occurring  here  in  past  centuries  that  it  greatly 
aids  one's  understanding  of  the  older  Capri  to  see  it; 
in  fact,  summer  is  the  delightful  season  here  for  many 
reasons. 

The  festival  procession  is  led  by  a  large  cross  borne 
by  priests,  followed  by  men  and  women  in  white  Capuchin 
hoods  twined  with  wreaths  of  blackberry  vine.  They 
have  ropes  on  their  shoulders,  to  indicate  the  penitential 
character  of  the  observance.  Behind  those  who  wear  the 
cowl  are  men  whose  bare  heads  are  wreathed  in  the  same 
manner.  Some  of  them  so  resemble  satyrs  and  the  disci- 
ples of  Bacchus  that  it  is  difficult  to  remember  that  we  are 
almost  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  of  our  era. 
After  the  men  come  women  and  maidens  in  long  white 


302  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

veils.  All  are  singing  or  chanting,  in  a  subdued,  rhythmic 
measure,  words  unknown  to  me,  but  undoubtedly  suited  to 
this  ceremony.  As  the  procession  is  formed  in  couples, 
the  street  is  quite  filled  as  it  passes,  and  the  whole  affair 
is  singularly  weird  and  unreal  in  appearance. 

Besides  the  profits  from  the  fruits  of  the  island,  there  is 
a  certain  amount  of  cheese-making,  which  pays  well,  as 
this  product  of  Capri  is  a  favorite  in  the  markets  of  Italy. 
In  the  spring  and  autumn  great  numbers  of  birds,  that 
are  making  their  northern  and  southern  journeys,  are  shot 
here  or  taken  in  nets  placed  across  chasms  and  ravines, 
especially  quails,  which  Capri  has  furnished  to  the  tables 
of  the  wealthy  since  the  days  of  the  Roman  epicures.  As 
the  bishop  of  the  island  obtained  his  chief  revenue  from 
these  birds,  he  was  sometimes  called  the  "Bishop  of 
Quails." 

But  it  is  on  the  sea  that  the  Capriotes  depend  as  a  never- 
failing  benefactor.  The  life  of  the  fishermen  is  hard; 
but  they  are  fond  of  it,  and  it  has  much  pleasurable 
excitement.  They  enjoy  a  wild  sea,  and  guide  their 
boats  through  a  dashing  surf  with  real  delight.  The 
Mediterranean  yields  a  large  variety  of  fish  that  are  sold 
in  immense  quantities  at  Naples  and  the  neighboring 
cities,  and  at  Capri  there  is  an  abundance  of  sardines  and 
cuttle-fish.  This  last  frightful  sea-creature  —  neither  fish 
nor  beast  —  is  taken  at  night;  it  is  attracted  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  by  lighted  torches ;  sharply  barbed  sticks 
are  extended  to  it,  at  which  it  clutches,  and  cannot  free 
itself  from  the  prongs  that  have  pierced  it  before  it  is 
skilfully  landed  in  the  fisherman's  boat. 

The  Marina  Grande  is  a  busy  place,  and  constantly 
affords  interest  and  amusement  to  the  stranger,  especially 
when  the  larger  boats  leave  for  Naples  or  return  from 
there,  as  they  do,  several  times  a  week.  The  beach  is 
quite  crowded.  All  who  wish  to  send,  or  expect  to  receive 


THE  ISLAND  OF  CAPRI.  303 

anything,  are  gathered  there,  and  for  an  hour  or  two 
before  "  boat-time  "  there  is  unusual  activity  on  all  paths 
leading  to  the  Marina,  while  many  seat  themselves  on  the 
steps  to  Anacapri  to  wait.  It  is  quite  like  a  fair  in  other 
localities.  The  women  and  girls  from  Capri  and  Ana- 
capri meet  here,  where  they  bring  the  ribbons  that  are 
finished,  and  receive  fresh  supplies  of  silk  to  be  spun 
and  woven. 

Necessaries,  too,  of  clothes  and  utensils,  an  occasional 
letter  from  a  Capriote  in  the  United  States  or  some  other 
foreign  land,  and  perhaps  a  new  song  or  a  slight  remem- 
brance from  friends  in  Napoli,  make  up  the  cargo.  But 
the  interest  taken  in  it  and  its  distribution,  the  gathering 
of  a  group  around  the  person  who  reads  the  letter,  and 
the  pretty  blush  of  the  girl  who  has  received  the  "token," 
as  she  parries  the  good-natured  pleasantry  of  the  others, 
make  a  tableau  vivant  well  worth  seeing,  and  to  be  remem- 
bered with  pleasure. 

Sometimes,  however,  the  wrong  side  of  the  life-web  will 
show  itself  here,  as  in  all  days,  and  at  all  places  since 
Adam  and  Eve  invented  it,  with  the  aid  of  the  serpent. 
A  young  girl  of  Anacapri,  named  Teresa,  as  beautiful  as 
any  Greek  maiden  could  have  been,  was  selected  by  a 
young  artist  as  the  object  of  his  devoted  attentions.  She 
was  soon  much  in  love  with  him,  but  never  saw  him  except 
in  the  company  of  her  elder  sister,  who  was  her  only 
surviving  relative.  She  accepted  his  offer  of  marriage, 
but  declined  to  be  wedded  until  he  was  ready  to  take  her 
home.  After  more  than  a  year  —  during  which  he  several 
times  left  the  island  for  short  intervals  —  he  went  away, 
promising  to  come  soon,  with  one  of  his  family,  to  marry 
her,  and  take  her  to  his  mother.  He  went  to  Rome, 
Florence,  and  other  Italian  cities,  from  which  she  had 
less  and  less  frequent  letters ;  and  although  they  had  no 
tangible  proof,  her  neighbors  began  to  feel  that  Teresa 


304  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

had  some  cause  for  sadness.  The  boat  never  came  from 
Naples  that  she  was  not  there ;  and  what  she  lacked  of  her 
old-time  gayety  her  sister  atoned  for  by  her  never-failing 
high  spirits. 

One  autumn  day,  when  a  threatening  storm  made  the 
gathering  on  the  beach  much  smaller  than  usual,  Teresa 
was  there,  looking  pale  and  weary.  A  young  fisherman, 
who  had  loved  her  from  childhood,  spread  a  tarpaulin  for 
her  to  rest  on,  and  watched  her  anxiously.  When  the 
mail-bag  was  open,  there  was  a  letter  and  a  small  parcel 
for  Teresa.  Her  face  lighted  with  joy,  and  she  gave  the 
parcel  to  be  opened  by  the  sister,  while  she  read  the 
letter.  A  little  box  containing  a  string  of  pearls  and  a 
pendant  fit  for  a  princess  was  exposed  to  the  view  of  the 
knot  of  sympathizing  friends,  when  suddenly  Teresa  looked 
up  from  her  letter,  seized  the  necklace,  and  with  a  shriek 
threw  it  into  the  sea,  as  if  it  had  been  a  scorpion,  and 
sank  on  the  sand  at  her  sister's  feet. 

The  letter  was  clutched  in  her  hand,  and  during  weeks 
of  delirium  no  one  could  take  it  from  her.  When,  at 
last,  her  friends  read  it,  they  learned  that  the  artist  had 
gone  to  his  home  without  her;  and  while  he  protested 
undying  love  for  her,  of  which  the  purity  of  the  pearls  was 
an  emblem,  he  released  her  from  her  promises  to  him, 
and  hoped  that  her  life  would  be  happier  than  he  could 
have  made  it.  The  letter  was  buried  with  her,  and  on 
the  evening  after  her  funeral  her  faithful  Capriote  lover 
disappeared.  It  may  well  be  feared  that  he  went  in  pur- 
suit of  the  artist. 

Wandering  here  and  there,  along  the  slopes  and  terraces 
of  the  island,  one  comes  upon  the  little  houses  of  the 
vine-growers,  which  seem  the  very  homes  of  peace  and 
innocence,  and  oftentimes  young  girls  are  seen  within 
busily  reeling  and  spinning  brilliantly  colored  silks,  or 
weaving  them  into  gay  ribbons.  It  is  not  difficult  to 


THE  ISLAND  OF  CAPRI.  305 

fancy  one's  self  in  the  midst  of  an  Homeric  scene,  and 
walking  the  earth  in  some  long  past  age  of  Eden-like 
simplicity.  These  girls  are  not  strictly  beautiful  by 
any  acknowledged  standard,  but  beautiful  in  spite  of 
standards. 

When  they  suddenly  look  up  from  out  the  shadow  of 
their  little  rooms,  one  wonders  which  feature  it  is  that 
gives  the  strange,  poetic  charm.  Is  it  the  eyes  flashing 
out  beneath  the  careless  confusion  of  the  hair  ?  or  the 
matchless  beauty  of  the  teeth,  which  the  smile  discloses  ? 
or  the  head-kerchief  draped  with  exquisite  grace  or  rising 
in  a  turban  worthy  an  Ethiopian's  praise  ?  Their  peculiar 
beauty  is  usually  "  set  off "  by  the  half-barbaric  jewelry 
which  they  constantly  wear,  and  which  is  their  only 
treasure.  When  seen  at  some  of  their  menial  occupations, 
the  long  gold  ear-rings,  necklaces,  and  finger-rings  look 
sadly  out  of  place,  but  on  these  ribbon-makers  they  seem 
entirely  suitable.  When  misfortunes  come  through  crop 
failure,  sickness,  or  other  ills,  and  the  Capriote  women 
and  girls  are  forced  to  sell  their  ornaments,  they  consider 
that  the  greatest  possible  calamity  has  overtaken  them, 
and  they  endure  great  privations  before  consenting  to- 
this  last  resort. 

Perhaps  the  charm  of  these  women  and  girls  depends  on, 
no  feature  of  face  or  dress,  but  is  in  their  most  attractive 
naivete,  —  a  grace  and  fascination  which  we  are  sometimes 
fearful  is  not  a  "lost  art,"  but  a  lost  want  of  art,  —  a 
bewitching  quality  now  almost  extinct  in  the  world  at 
large.  In  the  midst  of  the  poverty,  industry,  and  content 
of  these  people,  suspicion  and  coldness  vanish,  and  the 
stranger  who  wishes  it  may  easily  become  a  friend. 

But  to  know  all  the  beauty  of  these  young  girls,  they 
must  be  seen  in  groups,  filled  with  animation,  telling  or 
listening  to  some  interesting  story,  or  walking  with 
burdens  on  their  heads,  talking  and  laughing  as  they  go. 

20 


306  NAPLES  AND   ITS  ENVIRONS. 

So  great  is  their  poverty  that  they  are  glad  to  earn  money 
as  beasts  of  burden,  and  from  fourteen  years  they  carry 
the  heavy  antique  jars  full  of  water,  or  baskets  of  stone  or 
earth  from  the  bottom  of  the  island  to  the  town,  bearing 
weights  upon  their  slender  necks  that  many  a  stalwart  man 
would  shrink  from  having  laid  upon  his  shoulders. 

It  frequently  happens  that  a  boat  lands  a  cargo  of  stone 
to  be  carried  up  the  hill  for  a  building.  At  once  a 
procession  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  girls  is  seen  mounting 
the  steep  path  with  their  painful  burdens.  They  go  up 
and  down  from  twelve  to  sixteen  times  daily  for  several 
successive  days,  even  in  midsummer  heat.  These  files 
of  burden-bearers  are  very  attractive  to  artists,  who  indus- 
triously sketch  their  graceful  figures;  and  no  wonder, 
for  they  recall  the  women  of  the  Nile  and  India,  and  all 
models  of  living,  active  grace  that  one  can  remember. 
They  are  gay  and  merry  at  their  work,  and  when  at  noon 
they  seek  the  friendly  shade  of  some  spreading  tree  to  eat 
their  bread  and  a  bit  of  fruit,  they  laugh  and  chatter, 
and  return  to  their  toil  as  light  of  heart  as  of  feet,  on 
which  they  are  like  gazelles.  Gregorovius  *  thus  describes 
one  of  these  girls,  who  was  his  friend :  — 

"  If  I  wished  to  draw  a  picture  of  poverty,  the  most  peaceful 
and  cheerful  that  could  be  found,  I  should  describe  it  in  the 
person  of  the  fair  Costanziella.  After  she  has  spent  a  long 
hot  day  in  transporting  on  her  head  a  whole  pyramid  of  stones 
from  the  shore  up  to  the  old  picturesque  convent,  she  reposes 
during  the  evening  in  the  doorway  of  her  house,  and  refreshes 
herself  with  the  most  beautiful  music ;  for  she  is  an  accom- 
plished performer  on  the  jews-harp.  She  has  played  for  me 
upon  this  instrument,  with  inimitable  grace  and  skill,  many 
charming  airs,  —  all  kinds  of  sea-fancies,  songs  of  sirens  in  the 
Blue  Grotto,  songs  without  words,  strange  airs  to  which  no 

1  "  The  Island  of  Capri,"  by  Ferdinand  Gregorovius,  translated  by 
Lilian  Clarke. 


THE  ISLAND  OF  CAPRI.  307 

mortal  has  yet  given  a  name.  She  played  them  all  in  a  most 
masterly  manner ;  while  her  dark  eyes  sparkled  like  a  siren's, 
and  her  black  rippling  hair  clustered  around  her  forehead  as  if 
each  lock  were  dancing  for  pleasure.  When  Costanziella  had 
finished  her  concert,  she  invited  me,  in  the  most  courteous 
manner,  to  share  with  herself  and  her  mother  the  evening  meal ; 
the  table  being  spread  upon  the  roof  above.  The  repast  con- 
sisted of  ripe  Indian  figs,  from  the  single  cactus-tree  which 
grew  before  the  house,  which  she  had  very  skilfully  cut  off  with 
a  knife,  without  wounding  her  little  finger  with  the  thorns. 
Literary  subjects  we  did  not  discuss.  Costanziella  knew 
nothing  of  Schiller  and  Goethe ;  of  English  and  French  litera- 
ture she  was  equally  ignorant.  Her  whole  literary  world  con- 
sisted of  a  few  songs  from  the  Bay  of  Naples.  Her  mother 
was  like  a  picture  to  look  at,  but  her  conversation  was  chiefly 
upon  different  articles  of  food.  Costanziella  never  ate  meat. 
She  carried  stones  all  day,  and  in  the  evening  played  upon  the 
jews-harp,  while  her  food  consisted  of  dry  bread,  and  potatoes 
with  salt  and  oil.  When  I  asked  her  whether  she  had  ever  in 
her  life  eaten  roast  meat,  she  laughed  aloud.  But  neither  Hebe 
nor  Circe,  nor  the  Diana  of  Delos,  was  fresher  or  more  bloom- 
ing, or  possessed  a  greater  wealth  of  clustering  curls ;  and  cer- 
tainly none  of  these  was  more  skilful  upon  the  jews-harp." 

The  simplicity  of  expression  which  we  look  for  in  the 
faces  of  children  endures  through  life  with  many  Capriotes, 
and  renders  the  old  men  and  women  very  attractive.  The 
children  themselves  are  frequently  beautiful,  and  are 
bright  and  quick  in  their  intelligence.  They  wear  amulets 
to  keep  all  harm  away ;  the  wee  ones  have  a  little  horn, 
which  is  supposed  to  protect  them  from  the  evil  eye; 
others  wear  a  picture  of  the  Virgin  Mary  or  a  coin  with 
her  image  on  it.  They  are  apt  to  ask  for  a  soldo,  and  they 
do  it  very  sweetly,  and  if  refused  appear  to  think  it  quite 
right.  Some  older  children  ask  for  gifts  in  a  different 
way, — a  flower  is  presented  or  a  pretty  wish  for  happi- 
ness spoken,  a  return  for  these  civilities  in  the  form  of  a 


308  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

present  being  expected.  One  who  knows  his  Capri  well 
will  not  fail  to  carry  to  the  island  a  stock  of  trifles  for 
the  charming  creatures  who  dearly  love  pretty  things. 

So  much  for  the  native  Capriotes.  There  are  about 
three  hundred  of  another  class  of  people,  who  are  seen 
wandering  about  in  many  parts  of  the  island.  They  are 
old  soldiers  from  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  halt  and 
blind  predominate,  although  some  of  them  can  roam  as 
far  as  they  like,  having  lost  their  arms  or  being  otherwise 
afflicted  than  as  to  eyes  or  legs.  Capri,  innocent  as  it  is 
of  horses  and  carriages,  is  a  heaven  for  the  blind,  and  yet 
it  seems  like  the  irony  of  fate  to  put  one  who  cannot  see 
where  the  most  exquisite  views  are  ever  spread  out  before 
him,  or  to  place  the  cripple  where  the  steepness  of  the 
ways  demand  at  least  one  pair  of  strong  and  perfect  legs, 
and  two  pairs  would  be  better,  if  that  were  possible. 

These  old  soldiers  all  seem  fond  of  music.  They  sing 
songs  in  high,  cracked  voices  with  much  apparent  pleas- 
ure. Some  of  them  play  on  guitars,  pipes,  and  other  small 
instruments,  and  make  strange  sounds,  especially  when 
accompanied  by  the  singers.  They  even  follow  this  music 
to  the  piazza,  as  they  once  followed  the  bands  of  their 
regiments.  Through  the  fields  on  the  border  of  the  Valley 
of  Tragara  there  is  a  more  level  path  than  the  others 
within  reach  of  the  old  men ;  and  here,  under  the  olive- 
trees,  they  spend  much  time,  and  have  an  air  of  peaceful 
content.  In  one  view  they  are  superior  to  the  natives 
of  the  island,  having  no  care  of  themselves.  They  have 
served  their  country,  and  feel  no  humility  in  accepting  the 
support  she  gives  them.  Poor  crops  and  grape  disease 
can  do  them  no  harm.  They  appreciate  all  this,  and 
speak  of  Capri  as  a  peaceful  haven  after  the  storms  of  life. 

Of  the  temples  and  other  edifices  built  by  the  Greeks, 
eight  centuries  B.  c.,  nothing  remains  that  can  be  identi- 
fied; and  all  traces  of  the  architecture  of  the  time  of 


THE  ISLAND  OF  CAPRI.  809 

Augustus  have  also  disappeared.  We  are  told  that  he  fell 
in  love  with  the  island  when  a  weary  old  man,  and  gladly 
gave  Ischia  to  the  Neapolitans  in  exchange  for  the  island 
of  the  two  cities;  that  the  happy  augury  of  fresh  leaves 
putting  forth  from  a  withered  tree  greeted  him  at  the  very 
moment  that  his  foot  first  pressed  these  shores ;  that  he 
made  gardens  and  built  his  villa,  in  which  he  delighted 
to  dwell,  breathing  the  pure  delicious  air  of  the  island, 
gazing  on  the  many  beauties  of  mountain,  sea,  and  sky, 
which  were  within  his  vision,  and  learning  to  know  the 
Capriotes,  whom  he  admired  for  many  reasons.  A  visit 
of  four  days  in  company  with  Tiberius  and  Thrasyllus  was 
the  last,  as  he  died  soon  after  at  Nola,  A.  D.  14.  Suetonius 
thus  describes  some  episodes  of  this  farewell  to  Capri :  — 

"  As  he  happened  to  sail  by  the  Bay  of  Puteoli,  an  Alexan- 
drian ship  had  just  landed,  whose  passengers  and  crew  dressed 
themselves  in  white  garments  with  chaplets  upon  their  heads, 
and,  offering  incense,  loaded  him  with  praises  and  joyful  accla- 
mations, since  from  him  they  had  received  life,  a  prosperous 
voyage,  freedom,  and  good  fortune.  This  pleased  him  so  much, 
that  he  divided  among  his  followers  four  hundred  pieces  of 
gold,  and  caused  them  to  bind  themselves  by  oath  to  use  this 
gold  for  no  other  purpose  than  to  buy  the  wares  of  the  Alexan- 
drians. And  each  day  that  the  merchants  remained,  he  dis- 
tributed other  gifts  of  togas  and  pallia,  and  commanded  that 
the  Romans  should  use  the  Greek  and  the  Greeks  the  Roman 
dress  and  language.  He  likewise  constantly  attended  the  ex- 
ercises of  the  Ephebi,  according  to  an  ancient  custom  still  con- 
tinued at  Capri.  He  gave  them  a  banquet  in  his  own  presence, 
and  not  only  permitted,  but  required  from  them  the  utmost 
freedom  in  jesting  with  each  other,  and  in  snatching  apples 
and  fruit  and  presents  thrown  to  them  from  each  other's  hands. 
He  looked  coldly  upon  no  kind  of  cheerful  amusement." 

Such  kindness  and  good  fellowship  on  the  part  of  the 
aged  emperor  could  not  fail  to  win  the  affection  of  the 


310  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

islanders ;  and  the  remembrance  of  it  doubtless  made  his 
successor  even  more  hated  than  he  would  have  been  had 
they  not  known  Augustus. 

Tiberius  came  to  Capri,  A.D.  26,  and  during  eleven  years 
he  perpetrated  such  cruelties,  and  so  filled  the  island  with 
horrors,  that  eighteen  centuries  and  more  have  not 
sufficed  to  lessen  the  hatred  he  incurred.  The  people 
speak  of  him  as  Timberio.  The  wine  of  Capri  is  called 
by  his  name,  and  all  over  the  island  are  traces  of  "  that 
deified  beast,  Tiberius." 

If  one  can  forget  his  monstrosities  and  the  terrible 
sufferings  that  were  crowded  into  and  pressed  down  upon 
this  island  during  every  hour  of  his  reign,  and  can  fix  the 
thoughts  upon  his  material  achievements  alone,  the  ima- 
gination is  filled  with  scenes  of  rare  beauty.  Capri  then 
overflowed  with  everything  that  could  minister  to  the 
pleasure  of  the  senses.  Its  sublime  rocks  were  crowned 
with  twelve  imperial  villas,  each  vying  with  the  other 
in  magnificence.  Luxurious  theatres  existed,  and  many 
other  beautiful  edifices  were  scattered  here  and  there. 
Splendid  statues  and  ornamental  objects  adorned  the 
pleasure  groves  and  gardens,  and  all  were  reflected  in 
the  blue  sea,  with  which  the  azure  sky  seemed  to  be  ever 
exchanging  smiles  or  frowns,  now  exquisite  in  its  peace, 
and  again  magnificent  in  its  wrath. 

To  complete  the  picture,  we  must  fill  the  streets  with 
Romans  in  their  flowing  togas,  walking  with  proud  step 
and  mien,  —  a  whole  court,  with  ambassadors  from  many 
nations.  And  now,  the  emperor  passes,  —  the  handsomest 
man  of  his  time  in  all  the  earth,  whose  beauty  among 
Roman  emperors  was  second  only  to  Augustus.  Beautiful 
women  of  the  Orient  are  in  the  groves  and  gardens ;  nymphs 
and  bacchantes  pass  on  their  way  to  dance  before  their 
masters ;  and  everything  suggests  the  voluptuousness  which 
alternates  with  brutal  violence  in  the  life  of  Tiberius. 


THE   ISLAND   OF  CAPRI.  311 

Amid  such  fancies  how  strangely  thought  wanders! 
This  reign  of  Bacchus,  and  the  rites  of  a  religion  about 
to  die,  involuntarily  remind  one  that  during  a  certain 
three  days  when  these  orgies  were  at  their  flood  in  Capri, 
the  death  and  resurrection  of  the  Nazarene  gave  life  to  the 
religion  which  for  many  centuries  has  been  that  of  the 
great  Rome  from  which  the  minions  of  Tiberius  went  forth 
to  crucify  its  founder. 

A  popular  tradition  in  Capri  relates  that  in  the  depths 
of  the  mountain,  below  the  spot  where  the  Villa  of  Tibe- 
rius stood,  is  a  bronze  horse  of  enormous  size,  on  which 
is  seated  a  bronze  Tiberius.  Both  rider  and  horse  have 
eyes  of  cold,  sparkling  diamonds.  Rosario  Mangone 
mentions  this  in  his  book  on  Capri.  It  seems  a  meaning- 
less legend,  since  there  is  no  prophecy  that  this  bronze 
emperor  will  come  to  life  again,  as  is  foretold  in  some 
similar  tales;  but,  Tiberius  once  dead,  it  is  doubtless 
better  not  to  speak  of  his  re-incarnation.  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  defended  Tiberius,  and  some  modern  scholars 
have  dissented  from  the  severest  views  of  his  character; 
but  we  are  speaking  of  Capri,  and  there,  where  the  im- 
pression has  descended  through  many  generations,  given 
and  taken  by  father  and  son,  his  name  is  the  synonym 
of  everything  which  is  cruel,  fiendish,  and  morally 
monstrous. 

Several  successors  of  Tiberius  visited  Capri,  but  nothing 
of  interest  connected  with  the  Romans  occurred  here 
until  the  later  time  of  Commodus,  when  his  wife  and 
daughter  here  passed  a  long  and  cruel  banishment.  After 
the  fall  of  Rome  the  island  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
barbarians,  until,  with  Naples,  it  passed  to  the  Greek 
Duke  of  Naples,  and  then,  in  the  ninth  century,  was 
given  to  the  Republic  of  Amalfi. 

From  the  days  of  Roger  of  Sicily,  Capri  has  shared  the 
fate  of  Naples,  and  was  governed  by  the  same  rulers 


312  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

until  1806,  when  it  was  occupied  by  the  English  in  the 
name  of  the  King  of  Sicily. 

It  is  a  curious  fact,  but  fact  it  is,  that  all  the  rulers 
that  have  been  powerful  here  during  more  than  eighteen 
centuries,  and  all  the  events  that  occurred  during  their 
reigns,  are  forgotten.  One  hears  neither  blessings  nor 
curses  on  them.  They  are  ignored,  while  the  whole 
island  is  so  filled  with  the  memory  of  Tiberius  that  one  is 
almost  tempted  to  believe  that  his  spirit  has  remained 
here  in  some  more  potent  form  than  that  of  a  bronze, 
diamond-eyed  rider  of  an  equally  lifeless  steed.  When 
one  thinks  of  all  the  hours  that  have  been  spent  by  each 
generation  in  reciting  the  wonders  and  horrors  of  the 
Tiberiana  to  their  children,  and  remembers  how  much 
nervous  force  and  even  strong  emotion  has  been  put  into 
this  story-telling,  in  order  to  have  it  make  the  inefface- 
able impression  which  it  has  made,  the  whole  thing 
becomes  marvellous,  and  one  regrets  the  thought  that 
will  follow,  —  that  cruelty  is  longer  remembered  than 
kindness. 

In  the  midst  of  the  present  life  of  Capri  one  cannot 
realize  its  tragic  past.  The  wonderful  contrasts  in  its 
scenery  alone  suggest  anything  outside  the  monotonous 
toil  and  content  of  to-day.  Within  short  distances  of  its 
peaceful  homes  and  luxuriant  vineyards,  one  may  stand 
where  all  is  bare,  grim  rock  and  awful  precipice,  where 
Nature' frowns,  and  the  spirit  of  loneliness  and  desolation 
broods,  where  all  is  gloom  and  awfulness. 

The  Marina  Grande,  besides  being  the  busy  place  it  is, 
with  all  the  Capri  boats  and  fishermen,  their  goings  and 
comings,  net-mendings,  boat-cleanings,  and  all  that,  is 
also  the  landing  for  the  steamers  and  smaller  craft  that 
bring  visitors  from  all  the  neighboring  ports.  Several 
hotels  and  a  group  of  fishermen's  cottages  are  also  here, 
and  altogether  it  is  an  amusing  and  interesting  place, 


THE  ISLAND  OF  CAPRI.  313 

especially  to  one  who  wishes  to  study  human  nature 
rather  than  scenery  and  ruins. 

There  are  horses  and  donkeys  for  those  who  prefer  to 
ride ;  and  two  paths  lead  to  the  town  of  Capri,  —  steep,  like 
most  paths  on  the  island,  the  shorter  one  being  in  steps. 
Neither  of  them  is  pleasant,  as  both  are  shut  in  between 
garden  walls  much  of  the  way,  and  are  warm  when  the 
sun  shines.  Both  end  in  the  little  piazza  in  the  centre 
of  the  town,  which  is  situated  on  a  sort  of  saddle  connect- 
ing the  eastern  and  western  heights  of  the  island.  Two 
lower  hills,  on  which  are  the  ruins  of  castles,  also  over- 
look the  village,  which  —  itself  460  feet  above  the  sea  — 
is  as  if  guarded  by  sentinels.  The  little  church  has  its 
tower  and  bells,  the  hotels  are  scarcely  more  pretentious 
than  the  houses,  and  the  whole  town,  in  its  frank  sim- 
plicity, is  in  accord  with  the  people  whose  home  it  is. 
The  tiny  piazza  is  the  exchange  and  centre  of  trade. 
Here,  by  the  gate,  the  few  utensils  and  articles  needed 
by  the  Capriotes  can  be  bought;  here  the  people  meet  to 
talk  and  rest  when  not  at  work,  on  ordinary  days ;  while 
on  festival  days,  and  the  occasions  of  other  unusual 
happenings,  it  is  the  important  locality. 

The  old  town  of  Capri  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens ; 
and  the  Cathedral  of  Costanza  —  now  in  the  midst  of 
gardens  —  is  the  only  remaining  edifice;  while  the  bits 
of  old  walls  which  still  stand,  and  a  marble  sarcophagus, 
which  has  been  unearthed,  are  the  only  visible  signs  that 
men  once  dwelt  on  this  spot.  The  cathedral  looks  like 
an  ugly  village  church,  and  merits  no  attention ;  while  the 
Palazzo  a  Mare  —  one  of  the  twelve  villas  of  Tiberius, 
near  by  —  is  no  more  interesting.  A  century  ago  the 
objects  of  value  which  excavations  disclosed,  were  car- 
ried away.  The  walls  have  toppled  over,  some  por- 
tions of  them  falling  sheer  into  the  sea,  and  others  still 
lying  scattered  on  the  slope  to  the  coast,  the  whole  being 


314  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

a  mere  heap  of  rubbish  and  a  scene  of  desolation.  This 
is  true  of  most  of  those  villas  which  were  dedicated  to 
the  twelve  great  gods,  such  as  that  a  little  to  the  south  of 
the  present  town,  on  the  hill  of  Castello.  More  than  a 
hundred  years  since,  numerous  chambers  and  baths  were 
uncovered  here,  and  many  valuable  objects  —  such  as 
pavements,  pillars,  and  vases  —  were  sold  and  carried  to 
different  countries  of  Europe.  The  Castello  is  on  the  very 
border  of  the  island,  and  towards  the  sea  there  is  but  a 
wall  of  rock,  in  the  midst  of  which  is  a  grotto.  The  hill 
is  crowned  by  a  small  fort  with  towers  and  battlements, 
quite  mediaeval  in  character;  on  the  land  side  are  luxu- 
riant vineyards.  To  the  south  the  view  is  over  the 
Sicilian  Sea,  —  a  blue  expanse,  broken  only  by  passing 
vessels,  and  here  and  there  a  small  boat  near  at  hand. 
Above  rise  the  majestic  rocks  of  Anacapri,  and  not  far 
away  are  the  three  obelisks,  the  Faraglioni,  more  than  a 
hundred  feet  high,  on  which  the  sea-birds  love  to  build 
their  nests,  and  about  which  they  circle,  teaching  their 
young  to  fly.  These  cliffs  are  absolutely  inaccessible. 
One  is  smooth,  as  if  polished  by  hand;  the  others  look 
as  if  they  had  been  carved  in  fantastic  designs ;  and  one  is 
pierced  by  an  arched  opening,  through  which  a  boat  can 
pass.  On  their  tops  grasses  wave,  and  a  few  dwarf  trees 
have  grown  up  with  the  ages,  —  mysterious,  solemn  cones ; 
one  is  glad  that  there  are  three  of  them,  a  single  one 
would  be  so  lonely.  Looking  down  from  the  Castello,  the 
steepest  cliff  on  this  side  the  island  is  seen ;  and  at  the 
foot  is  a  bit  of  a  beach,  the  Piccola  Marina,  where  we  will 
land  when  making  the  giro  of  Capri. 

Between  the  hill  of  Castello  and  that  of  Tuoro  Grande 
lies  the  valley  of  Tragara,  where  vines  and  olive-trees 
abound.  On  the  border  of  this  valley  stands  La  Certosa, 
—  a  splendid  old  monastery  built  after  the  model  of  that 
of  San  Martino,  above  Naples.  It  is  now  the  home  of  the 


THE  ISLAND  OF  CAPRI.  315 

disabled  soldiers,  who  are  so  constantly  en  evidence  all 
about  the  lower  part  of  the  island.  The  Certosa  is 
believed  to  be  on  the  site  of  one  of  the  villas  of  Tiberius, 
and  was  founded  in  1363,  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow,  after  the 
birth  of  a  son  to  Giacomo  Arcucci,  who  had  hitherto  been 
childless.  It  is  large,  and  has  numerous  bell-towers  and 
domes.  Nestled  amongst  the  olives  against  the  blue 
background  of  the  sea,  it  is  the  most  picturesque  object 
on  the  island.  When  I  saw  it,  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 
century  ago,  the  weeds  and  vines  were  as  a  thicket 
around  it;  its  courtyard,  cloister,  and  cells  were  the  home 
of  birds  and  insects,  and  the  frescos  on  the  walls,  of 
which  there  were  a  goodly  number,  were  suffering  from 
neglect.  It  is  pleasant  to  think  of  the  old  soldiers  now 
wandering  about  its  corridors  and  cloisters,  and  made 
comfortable  through  the  same  spirit  of  Christian  charity 
which  inspired  S.  Bruno,  the  founder  of  the  Order  of 
Monks,  who  once  dwelt  there.  At  one  time  La  Certosa 
was  very  rich,  and  much  of  the  best  land  in  Capri 
belonged  to  the  monks.  Together  with  other  convents  on 
the  island,  it  was  suppressed  by  the  Parthenopeian  Re- 
public in  1799.  In  1808  it  was  the  headquarters  of  the 
English  commandant,  Sir  Hudson  Lowe,  and  under  the 
French  was  a  military  station. 

There  are  many  remains  of  antique  walls  in  the  valley 
of  Tragara,  which  are  called  Camerelle,  but  no  positive 
knowledge  exists  concerning  their  original  purpose. 
Rosario  Mangone  thinks  that  the  Camerelle  formed  a 
street  leading  to  the  Villa  of  Tiberius.  Gregorovius 
agrees  with  this  view,  and  adds  that  they  were  divided 
into  three  parts:  one  led  to  Monte  Tuoro,  a  second  to 
the  Villa  of  San  Michele,  and  the  third  to  the  Villa  Jovis 
or  Zeus,  which  was  called  the  Villa  of  Tiberius,  par 
excellence. 

San  Michele  is  the  most  symmetrically  formed  hill  on 


316  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

the  island.  It  rises  above  the  Camerelle,  and  doubtless 
one  of  the  ancient  villas  was  on  its  'top.  The  city  of 
Capri  is  seen  to  great  advantage  from  this  point,  and  it  is 
needless  to  add  that  the  whole  view  is  magnificent.  There 
are  spots  on  San  Michele  where  the  earth  gives  forth  a 
hollow  sound,  as  if  there  were  vaulted  chambers  beneath, 
such  as  are  seen  in  rows  at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  It  is 
doubtful  if  anything  of  unusual  interest  or  value  is  buried 
there ;  and  since  the  vine-growers  have  made  their  terraces 
and  planted  olive-trees  on  all  the  land  side  of  the  moun- 
tain, there  are  serious  reasons  against  its  excavation. 
[Near  the  foot  of  San  Michele  the  rocks  extend  out  so  near 
the  houses  of  the  town  that  a  man  can  easily  leap  from 
them  to  the  roofs,  and  if  allowed  to  pass  through  a  house 
can  thus  gain  the  street. 

Monte  Tuoro  is  interesting  for  its  splendid  view  and 
for  its  telegraph  station ;  but  though  there  was  doubtless 
a  villa  here,  no  traces  of  it  remain.  In  a  small  white 
house,  at  a  table  between  two  windows,  in  each  of  which 
is  a  telescope,  the  telegrapher  sits.  He  continually 
jumps  up  to  look  through  one  or  both  telescopes.  He  has 
a  large  record-book  open  before  him,  and  from  time  to  time 
writes  a  few  words  in  it,  and  again  looks  through  the  tele- 
scopes; and  this  is  daily  repeated  until  dark,  when  he 
climbs  560  steps  to  go  to  his  house  in  Anacapri,  and 
descends  next  morning  to  go  through  the  same  monotonous 
round  of  sitting  down  and  jumping  up  to  gaze  seaward, 
for  all  which  he  probably  is  paid  less  than  a  dollar  a 
day.  His  real  occupation  is  to  send  the  messages  which 
he  receives  from  the  operator  on  Monte  Solaro  to  Massa, 
across  the  Straits  of  Capri,  whence  it  is  forwarded  to 
Naples,  these  messages  being  chiefly  concerned  with  the 
vessels  which  are  traversing  the  Sicilian  Sea. 

To  visit  the  site  of  the  Villa  Jovis,  one  must  ascend 
Lo  Capo,  the  eastern  promontory  of  the  island.  It  was 


THE  ISLAND  OF  CAPRI.  317 

probably  here  that  Tiberius  secluded  himself  for  nine 
months  after  the  fall  of  Sejanus.  Near  the  site  of  the  villa 
are  the  foundations  of  the  wonderful  Pharos,  which 
Suetonius  says  was  thrown  down  by  an  earthquake  a  few 
days  before  Tiberius  was  murdered  at  the  Villa  Misenen- 
sis.  This  light-house  equalled  those  of  Alexandria  and 
Puteoli,  and  the  poet  Statius  calls  it  "the  rival  of  the 
night-piercing  moon." 

Between  the  light-house  and  the  villa  is  the  "  Salto  di 
Tiberio,"  or  "Leap,"  the  rock — 745  feet  in  height  — 
from  which  the  tyrant  hurled  his  victims  to  the  merciful 
sea  below.  Suetonius  says:  "In  Capri  is  shown  the 
place  of  his  murders,  where,  in  his  own  presence,  he 
caused  those  whom  he  had  sentenced  to  death  to  be  thrown 
into  the  sea,  after  protracted  and  exquisite  tortures.  A 
number  of  sailors  were  stationed  below  to  receive  the 
bodies,  and  beat  them  with  oars  and  sail-yards  until 
life  was  extinct. "  Or,  as  Samuel  Rogers  more  poetically 
pictures  it,  — 

"  'T  is  where  a  monster  dwelt, 
Hurling  his  victims  from  the  topmost  cliff ; 
Then  and  then  only  merciful,  so  slow, 
So  subtle,  were  the  tortures  they  endured. 
Fearing  and  feared  he  lived,  cursing  and  cursed  ; 
And  still  the  dungeons  in  the  rock  breathe  out 
Darkness,  distemper.     Strange,  that  one  so  vile 
Should  from  his  den  strike  terror  through  the  world  ; 
Should,  where  withdrawn  in  his  decrepitude, 
Say  to  the  noblest,  be  they  where  they  might, 
'  Go  from  the  earth  ! '  and  from  the  earth  they  went ; 
Yet  such  things  were,  and  will  be,  when  mankind, 
Losing  all  virtue,  lose  all  energy ; 
And  for  the  loss  incur  the  penalty, 
Trodden  down  and  trampled." 

Near  the  "Leap"  there  is  now  a  little  tavern,  and  a 
projecting  platform  with  a  railing  enables  one  to  look  down 


318  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

into  the  sea  below.  Gregorovius  found  "  a  kind  of  hor- 
rible pleasure  in  rolling  stones  down  this  steep  declivity, 
which  hasten  in  frightful  leaps  from  point  to  point,  and 
make  the  rocks  resound  with  the  thunder  of  their  fall. " 

The  extent  of  the  ruins,  the  commanding  position, 
and  the  fact  that  the  remains  found  here  are  among  the 
most  splendid  which  date  from  the  time  of  the  Romans, 
leave  no  doubt  that  this  Capo  —  the  highest  point  of 
the  northeast  shore  — -'was  the  site  of  this  remarkable 
Villa  Jovis.  To  quote  again  from  the  last-mentioned 
author : — 

"  Here  you  may  wander  in  a  labyrinth  of  arched  passages 
and  subterranean  galleries,  countless  chambers  now  used  for 
vintages  or  cow-stalls.  Capitals,  pediments,  architraves, 
marble  steps,  lie  around  in  fragments.  A  few  isolated  rooms 
have  still  the  remains  of  stucco-work,  and  decorations  in  the 
deep  yellow  or  dark  red  of  Pompeii  may  still  be  recognized. 
Some  of  the  floors  still  retain  their  mosaic  of  white  bits  of 
marble  with  black  borders,  and  here  and  there  staircases  to  the 
rooms  below  are  well  preserved. 

"  The  villa  appears  to  have  been  built  in  several  stories,  the 
lowest  of  all  still  covered  with  earth  not  yet  excavated.  The 
upper  part  surprises  the  beholder  by  the  yet  well-preserved 
plan  of  its  rooms,  which,  on  the  side  toward  the  water,  form  a 
semicircle,  perhaps  around  a  theatre.  Niches  and  circular 
walls,  however,  suggest  a  temple.  This  villa  unites  everything 
that  belongs  to  the  transcendent  magnificence  of  royal  life; 
and  since  it  was  so  long  the  seat  of  the  emperor,  before  any 
buildings  by  Nero  or  Hadrian  existed,  must  have  surpassed  in 
splendor  all  the  other  villas  of  Rome.  Add  to  this  the  incom- 
parable situation  above  the  straits,  where  the  two  bays  lie 
spread  out  before  the  eye. 

"  Here  sat  Tiberius,  like  an  eagle  in  his  eyry,  beholding 
everything  that  passed  upon  the  island,  and  also  the  ships  that 
entered  the  bay,  coming  from  Greece,  Asia,  Africa,  or  Rome. 
The  view  from  the  water,  sailing  between  Capri  and  the  Cape 


THE  ISLAND  OF  CAPRI.  319 

of  Minerva,  must  also  have  been  superb,  —  here  the  marble 
palaces  and  the  light-house,  there  the  beautiful  temples ;  for 
Tiberius  looked  out  upon  that  promontory  which  is  to-day 
crowned  by  a  tower,  and  beheld  both  the  far-renowned  temples 
of  Minerva  and  of  the  Sirens,  and  the  Temple  of  Heracles." 

On  the  highest  point  of  Lo  Capo,  1,050  feet,  and  built 
upon  the  very  ruins  themselves,  is  the  chapel  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Soccorso.  Here  dwells  a  hermit,  who  offers 
his  visitors  wine  and  a  book  in  which  to  write  their 
names.  Some  of  these  autographs  may  well  be  coveted 
by  collectors.  No  potentate  to-day  can  boast  of  such  a 
site  for  his  palace  as  this,  which  has  attracted  Tiberius 
and  this  poor  monk  to  make  a  home  here.  The  hermit 
has  a  few  curiously  interesting  "  antiques, "  found,  as  one 
may  say,  in  his  own  door-yard.  Many  valuable  pillars  of 
lapis  lazuli,  and  other  precious  substances,  as  well  as 
magnificent  pavements,  —  one  of  which  is  in  the  church  of 
Capri,  —  have  been  found  amid  these  ruins. 

No  word-painting  can  adequately  describe  the  splendor 
of  the  view  from  the  Capo,  and  its  extent  makes  it  hope- 
less for  the  master  of  the  brush.  It  is  as  if  one  looked 
into  a  vast  amphitheatre,  and  in  some  directions  the 
distant  objects  seem  to  rise  in  circles,  one  above  the  other, 
until  they  fade  into  the  beyond,  which  the  vision  cannot 
pierce.  Its  grandeur  is  not  comprehended  in  a  single 
visit.  A  certain  adjustment  of  one's  self  to  the  scene  is 
necessary  before  its  unusual  vastness  can  be  justly  esti- 
mated. Naturally  the  most  splendid  coloring  is  at  sunset, 
when  all  the  enchantments  of  Nature  seem  spread  before 
one ;  below  is  the  lovely  island,  and  for  miles  around  it 
the  blue  sea,  with  sails  here  and  there,  like  the  wings  of 
birds;  the  bays  of  Naples  and  Salerno  lie  sparkling  with 
the  colors  of  the  rainbow,  in  strange  contrast  with  the 
barren  Punta  di  Campanella,  where  the  Temple  of  Minerva 
once  stood ;  far  to  the  southeast  lies  Paestum,  and  in  the 


320  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

distant  northwest  are  the  Ponza  Islands;  while  between 
these  points  are  numberless  towns  and  cities,  promon- 
tories and  mountains,  with  dread  Vesuvius,  "the  Tiberius 
of  Nature,"  pouring  forth  its  smoke,  the  very  emblem  of 
the  most  terrific  destruction. 

One  of  the  most  curious  and  interesting  spots  in  all 
Capri  is  the  Grotto  of  Matromania,  reached  by  the  valley 
of  the  same  name,  descending  from  the  Tuoro  Grande  to 
the  sea.  This  mysterious  cavern,  one  hundred  feet  deep, 
and  more  than  half  as  wide,  is  entered  through  a  magnifi- 
cent natural  archway.  Within  are  traces  of  Roman 
masonry,  and  an  arrangement  like  seats,  and  of  steps, 
such  as  might  lead  to  the  spot  where  the  image  of  the 
god  there  worshipped  was  placed,  for  it  seems  to  have 
been  a  temple.  A  bas-relief  found  here  represented  the 
worship  of  the  Persian  Mithras,  and  it  is  believed  that  in 
this  grotto  that  sun-god  was  propitiated  and  adored.  The 
grotto  faces  the  east,  and  the  sunrise  must  be  a  glorious 
sight  when  seen  from  its  opening.  The  dim  mysterious- 
ness  which  pervades  it,  the  evidences  that  human  be- 
ings have  made  some  important  use  of  it,  the  silence 
which  is  profound  save  for  the  trickling  of  water,  unite 
to  make  it  impressive  even  to  a  sensation  of  awe.  A 
marble  tablet  found  here  bore  the  following  inscription 
in  Greek :  — 

"Ye  kind  demons  who  dwell  in  the  Stygian  land, 
Receive  me  also,  me  unhappy,  into  Hades  ; 
For  not  by  the  command  of  Moira,  by  the  power  of  the  ruler, 
Was  I  suddenly  struck  with  death,  which,  innocent,  I  did  not  fear. 
The  emperor  was  still  loading  me  with  gifts ; 
But  he  has  now  refused  hope  to  me  and  to  my  parents. 
I  have  not  attained  twenty  years ;  no,  not  fifteen. 
Alas  !  and  I  see  no  more  the  light  of  the  shining  day. 
Hypatos  is  my  name  :  I  call  to  thee,  my  brother ; 
My  parents,  I  mourn  unto  you.     Oh,  weep  no  longer, 
Ye  poor  ones  !  " 


7 be  Steps  at  Capri. 


THE  ISLAND  OF  CAPRI.  321 

The  excursions  already  mentioned  are  made  from  Capri, 
and  above  them  all  are  Anacapri  and  Monte  Solaro.  One 
hears  much  of  the  784  steps  from  the  Marina  to  Ana- 
capri; 535  of  these  are  above  the  lower  town,  and  the 
ascent  is  broken  half-way  by  the  chapel  of  S.  Anthony, 
where  one  may  rest.  But  this  fatiguing  climb  is  no  longer 
a  necessity,  as  a  road  has  been  constructed,  in  long  wind- 
ings, from  which  are  many  delightful  views. 

The  really  short  distance  which  separates  upper  and 
lower  Capri,  if  on  a  level,  would  make  the  towns  near 
neighbors ;  but  the  difficult  ascent  has  separated  them  as 
effectually  as  many  miles  could  have  done,  and  before 
the  road  was  made  the  people  of  the  two  villages,  who 
even  speak  in  different  dialects,  had  almost  nothing  in 
common. 

The  rocks  or  cliffs  between  the  towns  are  like  colossal 
walls,  in  strange,  weird  shapes;  while  above  them  a  por- 
tion of  Monte  Solaro  projects  like  a  great  roof,  and  on  the 
slopes  of  the  mountain  lies  the  "upper  city."  The  con- 
struction of  the  steps  is  attributed  to  the  Phoanicians  or 
the  Greeks.  They  are  wonderfully  made  in  a  zigzag 
course,  and  end  in  a  platform  from  which  there  are  two 
paths,  leading  to  the  village  and  to  Monte  Solaro.  The 
platform  is  called  Capo  di  Monte,  and  affords  one  of  the 
charming  outlooks  with  which  Capri  abounds,  and  from 
here  the  view  of  the  island  itself  is  unique.  The  great 
skeleton  rocks  rise  to  heights  above,  and  plunge  into 
depths  far  below  this  point;  in  spots  they  are  like  gar- 
dens with  waving  vines  and  even  trees;  again  they  are 
gray  and  bare,  and  seem  to  frown  on  all  the  world. 
Lower  Capri  and  the  seas  are  beneath;  Solaro  reaches 
toward  the  skies  above,  and  the  picturesque  ruins  of 
Castle  Barbarossa  remind  one  that  human  beings  have 
lived  on  these  desolate,  dizzy  heights. 

From  this  platform  Anacapri,  embowered  in  trees  and 

21 


322  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

shrubs,  looks  like  a  doll's  village.  The  houses  seem 
like  arbors  in  the  midst  of  gardens,  so  small  are  they 
when  seen  from  a  distance ;  and  even  when  near  at  hand 
they  are  the  tiniest  of  homes.  The  trees,  around  many  of 
which  grapevines  twine,  grow  even  more  luxuriantly 
here  than  in  the  lower  town,  for  the  sun  has  great  power 
on  this  slope  of  Solaro,  and  the  pure  air  makes  stalwart 
trees  as  well  as  stalwart  men. 

The  quiet  of  the  town  impresses  one  at  once.  In  sum- 
mer, when  the  men  are  coral-fishing,  the  women  are 
almost  alone.  They  care  for  the  gardens,  raise  silk- 
worms on  the  mulberry  leaves,  spin  and  weave,  and  sing 
their  songs,  and  seem  to  dwell  in  the  city  of  peacefulness. 
Their  industry  is  marvellous,  but  their  work  is  lighter 
than  that  of  the  women  of  the  lower  town.  They  carry 
no  burdens  unless  the  cisterns  run  dry,  when  they  must 
go  down  the  steps  for  water;  but  they  weave  and  spin 
from  sunrise  to  sunset  through  all  their  lives,  which 
oftentimes  extend  into  great  age.  At  the  end  they  are 
carried  to  "Paradise,"  which  is  represented  by  the  pave- 
ment of  their  church,  and  from  that  they  pass  to  their 
beautiful  Campo  Santo,  and  are  laid  beneath  its  cypress- 
trees,  while  flowers  bloom  above  their  graves.  In  no 
place  could  more  appropriately  be  inscribed  those  sweet 
old  words,  Requiescat  in  pace. 

Few  ruins  have  been  found  in  Anacapri,  the  most 
important  being  on  the  plain  of  Damecuta,  which  slopes 
gently  down  to  the  coast,  to  the  point  of  the  entrance  to 
the  famous  Blue  Grotto.  It  is  singular  that  both  on  the 
north  and  west  Solaro  slopes  down  to  a  lower  shore  than 
that  of  the  under  part  of  the  island;  and  yet  this  shore 
has  neither  beach  nor  harbor,  and  is  certain  destruction 
to  any  boat  thrown  on  it. 

There  is  a  tradition  that  Anacapri  was  founded  by  two 
lovers,  who  desired  even  greater  solitude  than  Capri 


THE  ISLAND  OF  CAPKI.  323 

afforded,  and  climbing  the  steep  rocks  built  themselves  a 
shelter  at  the  foot  of  Solaro.  The  ascent  of  this  moun- 
tain will  complete  the  "  sights  "  on  land  that  are  usually 
enjoyed  by  the  loiterer  on  this  bewitching  island.  The 
mountain  is  1,100  feet  higher  than  Anacapri,  but  400 
feet  short  of  the  summit  the  Hermitage  is  reached.  This 
is  very  interesting ;  the  entrance  to  the  cell  is  through  an 
old  chapel;  there  is  a  cheerful  little  garden,  and  if  the 
hermit  whom  I  saw  is  still  there,  he  is  gentle  and  cour- 
teous in  manner,  and  has  an  expression  of  composure, 
such  as  is  rarely  seen  except  in  the  images  of  Buddha. 

The  hermit's  nearest  neighbor  is  the  telegraph  operator, 
on  the  summit  above  him,  who  passes  his  life  peering 
down  into  the  sea,  identifying  sails,  and  straightway 
sending  the  results  of  his  observations  to  all  who  care  to 
hear  them.  How  many  people  in  Naples,  when  they 
read  that  a  P.  and  0.  steamer  is  about  to  arrive,  think  of 
that  man  on  the  highest  peak  of  Solaro,  who  has  told  them 
this  news  ? 

No  pen  could  give  a  just  description  of  the  view  from 
Monte  Solaro ;  even  the  simple  list  of  what  may  be  seen 
from  its  height  in  a  clear  day  is  impressive,  and  lest  my 
own  geography  should  be  at  fault,  I  will  give  that  of 
Gregorovius.  Of  course  the  most  comprehensive  view  of 
the  island  itself  is  had  from  this  summit,  and  it  is  a 
panorama  of  great  interest  and  beauty.  On  the  south  lies 
the  open  sea. 

"  Toward  the  west  and  north  the  islands  of  Ponza,  the  high 
peaks  of  Ischia,  the  island  of  Vivara,  the  gentle  slopes  of 
Procida ;  behind  them,  dreamy  and  distant,  the  mountains  of 
Gaeta  and  Terracina,  with  the  Cape  of  Circe ;  farther  the 
mountain  pyramids  of  Misenum,  at  the  foot  of  which  Tiberius 
was  murdered  ;  the  shores  of  Cimbria  and  of  the  Elysian  Fields  ; 
the  blue  coasts  of  Baiae  and  Pozzuoli ;  Cumae,  with  the  moun- 
tains of  Gaurus  and  of  Solfaterra ;  the  castle-crowned  island 


324          NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

of  Nisida ;  the  slender  Pausilippo ;  the  sharp  peak  of  Camal- 
doli ;  the  far  mountains  of  Capua  ;  then  the  gleaming  shore  of 
Naples,  a  long  line  from  the  city  to  Torre  del  Greco ;  the  two- 
peaked,  smoking  Vesuvius  above  Pompeii,  and  behind  it  the 
beautiful  mountains  of  Sarno  and  Nocera,  with  their  wealth  of 
spurs  and  gorges :  to  the  east  the  brown,  sharply  chiselled 
coast  of  Massa,  with  the  capes  of  Sorrento  and  Minerva ;  be- 
hind, the  gigantic  mountain  of  St.  Angelo ;  farther  still,  the 
Rocks  of  the  Sirens,  and  the  high,  mountainous  shores  of 
Amalfi  and  Salerno ;  and  last,  far  away,  the  white,  distant 
mountains  of  Calabria,  Paestum, —  a  mere  line  of  shore,  —  and 
Cape  Licosa  in  Lucania." 

To  think  of  such  an  horizon  is  an  effort;  and  when  to 
the  bare  fact  of  its  comprehensiveness  one  tries  to  add  the 
thought  of  all  the  wonderful  events  that  have  taken  place 
within  sight  of  Solaro,  it  is  as  if  ages  rolled  over  one, 
and  the  brain  grows  dizzy  and  refuses  to  lend  itself  to 
such  unending  labors. 

A  sunset  from  Solaro  on  a  clear  summer  evening  leaves 
an  impression  not  to  be  forgotten.  The  whole  sea  is  of  a 
glowing  gold  and  crimson,  as  is  the  western  sky.  Even 
the  rocks  rising  here  and  there  from  its  bosom  —  espe- 
cially the  rock  of  Ponza,  from  which  so  many  Christian 
martyrs'  souls  have  taken  their  flight — seem  to  be  on 
fire ;  and  although  this  very  brilliancy  warns  one  of  the 
darkness  that  will  soon  follow,  it  is  with  many  such 
looks  as  were  forbidden  to  Lot's  wife  that  the  descent 
is  slowly  and  regretfully  made. 

A  delightful  excursion  is  the  giro  of  the  whole  island ; 
and  from  the  water  the  great  variety  in  the  formation  of 
the  cliffs  and  promontories  is  best  seen.  These  views 
are  most  impressive;  and  at  the  foot  of  Castello,  and  not 
far  from  the  majestic  Faraglioni,  is  the  Piccola  Marina, 
one  of  the  delightful  surprises  of  this  mysterious  shore. 
Lying  on  the  southern  coast,  and  sheltered  by  rocks,  it  is 


THE  ISLAND  OF  CAPRI.  325 

isolated  from  all  the  world.  A  few  fishermen's  cottages 
are  built  into  the  rocky  arcades,  and  but  a  small  number 
of  boats  can  find  safe  mooring  in  the  little  harbor ;  the 
beach  is  very  small,  and  is  the  only  place  on  Capri  known 
to  me  from  which  there  is  no  view.  Barren  rocks  and 
the  broad  sea  hem  in  this  tiny  Marina,  and  the  silence  is 
broken  only  by  the  lapping  of  the  waves  and  the  cries  of 
the  birds  far,  far  above  on  the  heights  of  the  cliffs.  An 
occasional  vessel  going  or  coming  from  far-away  Africa  or 
the  neighboring  Palermo,  as  may  suit  one's  fancy,  is  the 
only  moving  thing  besides  the  rolling  sea  and  the  fleecy, 
passing  clouds. 

Capri  is  so  rich  in  grottos  that  one  scarcely  knows  where 
to  begin  in  speaking  of  them;  and,  indeed,  it  would  be 
quite  impossible  here  to  mention  all  that  are  known,  or 
to  do  justice  to  any.  The  shores  of  the  island  are  liter- 
ally honey-combed  by  these  caverns,  and  it  is  not  probable 
that  they  have  all  been  visited  by  human  beings.  The 
Grotto  of  the  Stalactites,  the  White  Grotto,  the  Marmo- 
lata,  Marinella,  and  several  others  along  the  shore  from 
Monte  Solaro  beyond  the  Faraglioni,  are  well  worth 
exploring.  In  some  of  them  exquisite  seaweed  abounds ; 
in  others,  the  walls  and  stones  are  of  various  colors,  and 
all  beautiful.  Again,  the  peculiar  formation  of  the 
chambers  produces  such  sounds  and  cadences  from  the 
waves  as  make  a  grander  "  Ocean  Symphony  "  than  any 
heaven-endowed  composer  could  either  dream  or  write. 

The  celebrated  Green  Grotto  —  Grotta  Verde  —  excels 
all  others  in  its  beautifully  arched  shape  and  the  splendor 
of  its  surrounding  peaks  of  rock.  It  is  not  entirely  sub- 
terranean, and  at  noon  it  might  be  most  fittingly  called 
the  Grotto  of  Hope,  since  it  is  lighted  by  that  exquisite 
emerald-green  which  is  the  symbol  of  that  virtue  which 
S.  Paul  mentions  in  the  celestial  company  of  faith  and 
charity. 


326  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

So  much  Blue  Grotto  literature  already  exists  that 
nothing  could  be  added  to  increase  its  value.  It  is  better 
to  select  some  of  the  excellent  things  that  have  already 
been  said  of  it.  Doubtless  this  cave  was  well  known  to 
former  generations  and  peoples ;  but  the  knowledge  of  it 
had  long  been  lost  when  it  was  re-discovered  by  August 
Kopisch,  the  artist  Fries,  and  Angelo  Ferraro,  a  sailor, 
on  August  17,  1826.  After  giving  notice  of  his  discovery 
and  the  names  of  his*  companions,  and  announcing  the 
name  they  had  bestowed  on  it,  Kopisch  says :  — 

"  It  is  a  remarkable  phenomenon,  the  water  seeming  to  fill 
the  grotto  with  blue  fire.  Every  wave  appears  like  a  flame. 
At  the  back  part  of  the  grotto  is  an  old  passage  leading  into 
the  rock,  perhaps  to  the  Tower  of  Damecuta  above,  where 
tradition  reports  that  young  maidens  were  formerly  imprisoned 
by  Tiberius ;  and  it  is  possible  that  the  grotto  was  his  secret 
landing-place.  ...  It  is  most  beautiful  in  the  morning,  be- 
cause in  the  afternoon  the  light  is  stronger  and  the  mysterious 
charm  thereby  diminished.  The  picturesque  effect  will  be  in- 
creased, if  the  visitor  can,  like  ourselves,  carry  with  him  into 
the  cave  burning  torches." 

The  author  of  "  Notes  on  Naples  "  says :  — 

"  A  sparry  roof  worked  by  the  living  waters  spreads,  like  a 
pavilion,  its  low  wide  arches  on  every  hand ;  cells  and  shelves 
and  adamantine  halls,  bluer  than  the  blue  heaven  you  have  left 
and  they  will  never  see,  are  above  you,  and  beneath,  and  far 
within,  and  all  around ;  silent,  too,  as  sleep,  except  for  the 
infant  echoes  of  the  rippling  water,  and  the  light  drip,  at  inter- 
vals, of  the  suspended  oar.  The  waves,  which  are  the  cavern's 
pavement,  are  like  the  turquoise  stone,  as  delicate,  but  more 
luminous,  and  transparent  as  light,  as  they  undulate  around  in 
their  soft  hues,  suffusing  the  sunken  rocks,  the  submarine  wall, 
and  the  arched  roof  above  you  fretted  with  its  stalactites.  A 
color  as  of  violet  is  in  the  air,  and  in  the  vault's  more  distant 
depths  there  is  a  purple  like  the  starry  night.  Nay,  the  very 


The  Blue  Grotto  of  Capri 


.     THE  ISLAND  OF  CAPEI.  327 

fish  among  the  broken  rocks  below  your  keel  seem  blue  as  the 
bird's  wing.  This  Grotta  Azzurra  is  a  hall  for  a  sea-god,  where 
Tethys  might  repose  her  limbs  in  sultry  noon,  or  the  translated 
Glaucus,  enamored  of  his  Nereid,  make  his  home." 

And  Gregorovius  thus  adds  his  testimony  to  the  charm 
of  this  unique  cave  of  the  blues :  — 

"  When  I  entered  the  grotto,  I  felt  as  if  I  had  gone  back  into 
one  of  those  fairy-tales  in  which  we  live  as  children.  Daylight 
and  the  upper  world  have  suddenly  disappeared  ;  and  you  find 
yourself  in  the  hollow  earth,  in  the  midst  of  a  twilight  of  blue 
fire.  The  waves  cast  up  sparkling,  pearly  drops,  as  if  thou- 
sands of  shining  sapphires,  red  rubies  and  carbuncles,  were 
thrown  up  from  the  depths.  The  walls  are  of  a  ghostly  and 
mysterious  blue,  like  the  palaces  of  fairies.  A  sense  of  foreign 
substance  and  spirit  pervades  the  place,  making  it  in  the 
strangest  way  at  once  mysterious  and  familiar.  All  is  silent, 
as  if  in  a  world  of  shadows  ;  no  one  ventures  to  speak.  First 
comes  a  cry  of  admiration,  then  perfect  stillness  ;  and  the  only 
sound  is  the  dipping  of  the  oar,  or  the  rippling  of  the  waves, 
which  weave  wreaths  of  phosphorescent  light  on  the  rocky  walls. 
The  blue  water  is  irresistibly  alluring ;  it  rouses  an  intense  de- 
sire to  plunge  therein,  and  sink,  drowning,  into  a  sea  of  light. 
I  have  seen  upon  a  Greek  vase  a  figure  of  a  siren,  a  very 
beautiful  figure,  raising  both  arms,  white  as  lilies,  while  she 
laughs,  and  strikes  together  two  shining  brass  cymbals :  thus 
do  the  sirens  rise  in  this  cave  out  of  the  waves  of  blue  fire, 
strike  their  cymbals,  laughing,  and  dive  into  the  waves,  and 
rise  again.  But  they  can  be  seen  only  by  little  children,  and 
by  men  and  women  born  on  Sunday." 

Many  an  archdd  roof  is  bent 

Over  the  wave, 
But  none  like  thine,  from  the  firmament 

To  the  shells  that  at  thy  threshold  lave. 
What  name  shall  shadow  thy  rich-blue  sheen, 
Violet,  sapphire,  or  ultramarine, 

Beautiful  cave  ? 


328  NAPLES  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS. 

Blue,  —  blue,  —  beautiful  and  intense,  — 

Everywhere : 

Spirits,  or  some  one  spirit  immense, 
Breathing  and  burning  in  the  air  ; 
Making  an  ardent  presence  felt, 
Till  the  rocks  seem  as  like  to  melt 

In  the  glare  I 

No  1  they  emit  no.  heat, 

Those  prisoned  beams. 
At  noontide,  in  thy  coolness  sweet, 

The  glowing  Italian  summer  dreams, 
And  the  limpid  and  sparkling  lymph 
Bath  of  beauty,  in  form  of  nymph, 
Well  beseems. 

World  of  wonders  and  strange  delights, 

Submontane  sea, 
Bowers  of  branching  stalactites, 

Islands  of  lapis  lazuli, 
And  waves  so  clear,  and  air  so  rich, 
That,  gazing,  we  know  not  which  is  which,  — 
Adieu  to  thee  I 

William  Gibson 


INDEX. 


A. 

Acquaiolo  (water-seller),  209. 

Acquaviva,  Giulio,  98. 

JEtn&,  277,  298. 

Agatocle,  La  Selva  di,  3. 

Agnolo  Aniello  Fiore,  76. 

Agnolo,  Gabriele  d',  66. 

Agostino  della  Zecca,  church  of,  21. 

Agrippina,  275. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  treaty  of,  141. 

Alaric,  6. 

Albergo  dei  Poveri,  142,  220,  223. 

Alcala,  Duke  of,  93. 

Aldobrandini,  Giacomo,  91. 

Alexander  III.,  Pope,  292;  V.,  Pope, 

30;   VI.,  Pope,  44. 
Alfonso  I.  (the  Just),  33,  37,  39,  40,  49, 

134,  251,  253,  259,  261;  II.,  44,  46,  47, 

50,  51, 107,  253,  254. 
Alford,  Dean,  quoted,  293. 
Alicarnasseo,  quoted,  02. 
Alice,  Punta  dell',  5. 
Altamura,  Frederick,  Prince  of,  49,  51. 
Alva,  Duke  of,  34,  82,  93,  107. 
Amalfi,  293;  bronze  doors  of,  246. 
Amalia  Walburga,  139. 
Amerighi,   Michael  Angelo    (Caravag- 

gio),  104,  105,  248. 
Amiens,  Peace  of,  163. 
Amsanctus,  2. 

Amulets,  226,  227,  228,  229. 
Anacapri,  299,  303,  321. 
Andersen,  Hans  Christian,  quoted,  293. 
Andrea  Ciccione,  32,  76,  246. 
Andrea  di  Salerno,  79,  248. 
Andrea  Orcagna,  250. 
Andrea  Vaccaro,  132,  248. 
Andrew  of  Hungary,  26,  27. 
Aniello  Falcone,  131,  133,  248. 
Aniello,    Tommaso,  of  Sorrento,   108. 

See  Masauiello. 


Anjou,  House  of,  39. 

Anna,  Santa,  dei  Lombard!,  church 
of,  51. 

Annunziata,  Maria  dell',  church  of,  34, 
35,  48,  102,  221. 

Antonelli,  Cardinal,  199. 

Antonio,  246. 

Antonio  a  Tarsia,  convent  of,  223. 

Antonio  di  Domenico,  76. 

Antonio  Solario,  35,  79,  248. 

Appleton,  Thomas  Gold,  quoted,  287. 

Aquarium,  218. 

Aqueduct,  5,  143,  144. 

Aquila,  Silvestro  dell',  40. 

Aquinas,  Thomas,  295. 

"Arcadia,"  Sannazzaro's,  256. 

Arch,  Triumphal,  39,  40. 

Architecture,  244. 

Archytas,  9;  shipwreck  of,  2. 

Arco  Felice,  273. 

Arco,  Madonna  del,  237. 

Arcos,  Duke  of,  101,  108,  111,  113,  115, 
116,  121,  122,  123,  124,  125,  127. 

Arcucci,  Giacomo,  315. 

Ariano,  Bishop  of,  255,  262. 

Arimos,  4. 

Aristarchus,  269. 

Armstrong,  Cantiere,  225. 

Artasia,  fountain  of,  2. 

Ascanio  Filomarino,  111,  115,  116,  117, 
120,  121,  122,  123,  124,  125. 

Atlas,  fountain  and  statue  of,  73. 

Atrani,  bronze  doors  of,  246. 

Attendolo  Sforza,  30,  31,  33. 

Augustus,  Emperor,  261,  262,  266,  277, 
309. 

Avalos,  Costanza  d',  277,  280;  Ferdi- 
nand, 277. 

Avernus,  Lake,  2,  272. 

Aversa,  26,  33,  52,  59. 


330 


INDEX. 


B. 

Bacon,  Lord,  259. 

Bagnoli,  264. 

Baise,  Castle  of,  63,  74,  269,  275. 

Baireuth,  Margravine  of,  263. 

Bajazet,  Sultan,  47. 

Baker,  Captain,  157. 

Balbi,  statues  of  the,  283. 

Balbo,  194. 

Bamboccio,  Abbate  Antonio  di   Dome- 

nico,  76,  246. 
Bandello,  257. 
Bandiera,  plot  of  the,  194. 
Banditti,  61,  62,  87,  90,  129,  130,  166. 
Barbarossa,  Castle,  321. 
Barletta,  Cathedral  of,  43. 
"  Bassi,"  211,  212. 
Bayonne,  Statute  of,  168. 
Beatrice  of  Provence,  19,  27. 
Beauharnais,  172. 
Beccadelli,  Antonio,  251. 
Bedmar,  Marquis  of,  87. 
Belisario  Corenzio,  103,  248. 
Belisarius,  5. 
Bell,  Sir  Acton,  149. 
Benedetto,  246. 
Benedict  XIV.,  Pope,  145. 
Benevente,  Count  of,  106. 
Benevento,  battle  of,  16,  18,  21 ;  bronze 

doors  of,  246. 

Beneventum,  Prince  of,  291. 
Bentinck,  Lord,  173. 
Berardina  Pisa,  109,  124. 
Berkeley,  Bishop,  quoted,  279. 
Bernadotte,  King,  168. 
Bernardo  Tanucci,  138,  139, 147, 148, 149. 
Berwick,  Duke  of,  138. 
Bilingues,  9. 
Blue  Grotto,  306,  326. 
Boccaccio,  24,  43,  250,  256,  257,  262. 
Bonaparte,  Caroline,  170,  171,  172,  173. 
Bonaparte,  Joseph,  164,  165,  166,  167, 

168,  169. 
Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  151, 152, 162,  164, 

167,  168,  169,  311. 
Bonifacio,  Andrea,  77. 
Borbone,  Carlo  (Charles  III.  or  VII.), 

137,  138,  139,  140,  141,  142,  143,  144, 

145,  146,  261,  282. 
Borgia,  Cardinal  Caesar,  52, 70 ;  Cardinal 

Caspar,  89. 
Botanical  Garden,  45. 
Bo  vino,  Duke  of,  93. 


Braccio,  mercenary,  30. 
Brancaccio,  Col'  Antonio,  62. 
Bronze  doors,  40,  76,  246. 
Bruno,  Giordano,  167,  257,  258. 
Brutus,  34. 

Buoni  Cugini,  176,  178,  182. 
Buono,  of  Venice,  76. 
Busentinus,  the,  6. 
Byron,  Lord,  178. 

C. 

Cabano,  Raimondo,  Seneschal,  28. 
Calabrese,  II  (Mattia  Preti),   105,   106, 

248. 
Calabria,   Charles,   Duke  of,  28;  John, 

Duke  of,  40,  41,  42 ;  Francis,  Duke  of, 

180,  184. 
Calderari,  179. 

Caldora,  Jacopo,  37 ;  Antonio,  38. 
Call,  187. 
Caligula,  272. 
Calixtus  HI.,  Pope,  292. 
Camaldoli,  264,  284,  324. 
Camaldoli  della  Torre,  Monastery  of,  284. 
Camera  obscura,  invention  of,  42. 
Camerelle,  315,  316. 
Campanella,  Tommaso,   167,   257,  258, 

259. 

Campo  di  Marte,  235. 
Canosa,  Prince  of,  167,  175, 179,  184. 
Canova,  144,  187. 
Capaccio,  quoted,  100. 
Capecelatro,  Francesco,  94, 108, 125, 129. 
Capo  Caroglio,  264. 
Capodimonte,  festival  of,  238. 
Capo  di  Monte,  321. 
Capo-di-Monte,  palace  of,  141. 
Cappella  del  Tesoro,  102,  103,  240. 
Cappella  di  San  Michele,  289. 
Caprajo  (goatherd),  209. 
Capri   (Caprea?),   4,   68,   165,   170,  205, 

208,  277,  290,  291,  297,  298-328. 
Capuana,  Porta  (Capuan  Gate),  45,  66, 

107,  138,  183,  210. 

Caraccioli,  Ser  Giovanni,  33,  69,  104, 246. 
Caracciolo,  Admiral,  154,  161. 
Caracciolo,  Giovanni  Battista,  248. 
Carafa,  Archbishop  Alexander,  48. 
Carafa,  Andrea,  70. 
Carafa,  Diomed,  113,  114,  115,  116, 117, 

123,  124,  131,  255. 
Carafa,  Francesco,  98. 
Carafa,  Gian  Pietro  (Paul  IV.),  82. 


INDEX. 


331 


Carafa,  Giuseppe,  117, 118. 

Carasale,  Angelo,  141. 

Caravaggio,    Michael   Angelo    da,  104, 

105,  248. 
Carbonari,  175,  176,  177,  178,  179,  180, 

181,  182, 183. 

Carlisle,  Lord,  quoted,  296. 
Carlo,  San,  Theatre,  see  Theatre. 
Carmosina  Bonifacia,  255. 
Carnival,  236. 
Caroline,  Queen,  148,  149,  152,  158, 162, 

165,  166,  167,  169,  171,  173. 
Caroline  Bonaparte,  170,  171,  172,  173. 
Carpio,  Marquis  of,  101. 
Casa   del  Trovatelli    (Foundling  Asy- 
lum), 221. 
Casamicciola,  280. 
Caserta,  palace  of,  143,  148,  245. 
Cassandra,  Marchesa,  256. 
Cassiodorus,  9. 
Castel  Capuano,  37,  48,  61. 
Castel  del  Carmine,  45,  70. 
Castel  dell'  Ovo,  21,  24,  28,  36,  50,  76, 

168,  217. 

Castel  del  Monte,  18. 
Castellammare,  18,  22,  40,  141, 157,  205, 

264,  289. 

Castello  di  San  Martino,  46. 
Castello,  hill  of,  314,  324. 
Castel  Nuovo,  21,  36,  39,  65,  71,  78,  89, 

93,  111,  127, 129,  134, 198,  201,207, 263. 
Castel  Sant'  Elmo,  24,  28,  46,  59,  72,  93, 

101,  107,  111,  116,  127,  142,  151. 
Castrillo,  Count  of,  130,  131,  133. 
Catanzaro,  castle  of,  75. 
Catherine  de  Simone,  188. 
Catherine  of  Valois,  26. 
Caudine  Forks,  5. 
Cava  dei  Tirreni,  La,  291. 
Cava,  Trinita  della,  292. 
Cavour,  Count,  201,  202. 
Celestine  V.,  Pope,  23. 
Cellamare,  Prince  of,  121. 
Cemeteries,  239. 
Cephorim  (Capri),  4,  297,  299. 
Certosa  of  San  Martino,  La,  28,  37,  314, 

315. 

Championnet,  General,  154,  155. 
Charlemagne,  295. 
Charles,  Duke  of  Calabria,  28. 
Charles  I.  of  Anjou,  16,  17,  18,  19,  20. 
Charles  II.  of  Anjou,  20,  21,  22,  23;  of 

Spain,  136. 


Charles  III.  of  Durazzo,  26,  27,  28,  31; 
(Borbone)  71,  137,  138,  139,  140,  141, 
142,  143,  144,  145,  146,  169. 
Charles  V.,  45,  57,  65,  66,  75,  79. 
Charles  VI.,  Emperor,  136, 138, 139, 140. 
Charles  VII.  of  France,  33,  38;  VIII.  of 
France,  44,  46,  47,  48,  50,  52,  251,  253. 
Charles  Martel,  23. 
Chiaja,  69,  98. 

Chiara,  Santa,  church  of,  24,  25,  77. 
Cholera,  193,  216,  234. 
Churches:  — 

Cappella  del  Tesoro  (San  Gennaro), 

102,  103,  240. 

Cappella  di  San  Michele,  289. 
Carmelites',  120. 

Cathedral  of  Barletta,  43;  of  Co- 
senza,  33;  of  Ossuna,  85;  of  Pa- 
lermo, 15;  of  Ravello,  76;  of 
Salerno,  295. 

Costanza  (Cathedral),  313. 
Incoronata,  28. 
Monte  Oliveto,  51,  197,  254. 
Monte  Vergine,  26,  237,  240. 
San  Agostino  della  Zecca,  21. 
San  Domenico  Maggiore,  22,  23,  46, 

49,  134. 

San  Felippo  Neri,  218,  249. 
San  Francesco  di  Paola,  187,  195, 

249. 

San  Gennaro,  Career!  di,  271. 
San  Gennaro,  21,  102. 
San  Giacomo  degli  Spagnuoli,  67. 
San  Giovanni  a  Carbonara,  26,  32, 

45,  246. 
San  Lorenzo,  21,  42,  43,  64,  65,  112, 

116. 

San  Martino,  102,  314. 
San  Matteo,  294. 
San  Nicolo  at  Bari,  244. 
San  Pietro  Martire,  22. 
San  Severino,  77. 
Santa  Anna  dei  Lombard!,  51. 
Santa  Chiara,  24,  25,  28,  77. 
Santa  Maria  del  Carmine,  19,  124. 
Santa  Maria  del  Parto,  79,  255. 
Santa  Maria  del  Soccorso,  319. 
Santa  Maria  dell'  Annunziata,  35, 

48,102,221. 

Santa  Restituta  (Cathedral),  280. 
Spirito  Santo,  169,  182. 
Ciccione,  Andrea,  32,  76,  246. 
Cicero,  9,  34,  266,  271. 


332 


INDEX. 


Circe",  4. 

Citta  Ducale,  24. 

Clarke,  Lilian,  306. 

Claudius,  Emperor,  9. 

Clement,  IV.,  Pope,  17;  VI.,  Pope,  27; 

VII.,  Pope,  27,  58;  VIII.,  Pope,  58. 
Clementia,  Princess,  23. 
Code,  Monsignor,  190. 
Codagora,  Viviano,  132,  248. 
Colantonio  del  Fiore,  35. 
Colbert,  133. 

Colletta,  quoted,  166,  168,  169,  170,  185. 
Colonna,  Vittoria,  46,  277,  278,  27§. 
Commerce,  101,  140. 
Commines,  50. 

Commissar}',  Royal,  216,  217. 
Commodus,  311. 

Compagnia  della  Morte,  131,  132. 
Conca,  Prince  of,  93. 
Conrad,  15. 
Conradin,  15,  18,  19. 
Consejo  de  Italia,  80. 
Consiglio  Colaterale,  80. 
Constance  of  Normandy,    11,  168;    of 

Aragon,  15;    heir  of  the  Hohenstau- 

fens,  20. 

Conybeare  and  Howson,  268. 
Cook,  Thomas,  &  Sons,  284. 
Coppola,  Carlo,  132. 
Coral  fisheries,  283. 
Corenzio,  Belisarso,  103,  248. 
Corneille,  131. 
Corniche  road,  263- 
Corso  Garibaldi,  45,  218. 
Corso  Vittore  Emmanuele,  72,  218. 
Cortes,  Leonora,  104. 
Cosenza,  33,  74. 
Costanza,  Cathedral  of,  313. 
Costanza  d'Avalos,  277,  280. 
Costanza  di  Francavilla,  278. 
Cranch,  Christopher  Pearse,  68. 
Crathis,  2. 

Craven,  Mr.  Keppel,  quoted,  230. 
Cronaca  di  Notar  Giacomo,  48. 
Croton,  3,  9. 
Cumae,   settlement  of,   7;    excavations 

at,  144;  city  of,  273,323- 
Cuttle-fish,  302. 


D. 

D'Altamura,  Giovanni,  50. 
Damecuta,  plain  of,  322,  326. 


Dante,  17.  25,  250. 

D'AubigiK5,  52. 

D'Azelio,  194. 

Decameron,  The,  257. 

Ue  la  Marche,  37,  39. 

D'Elboeuf,  Prince,  283. 

Delcaretto,  190,  194. 

Descartes,  258,  259. 

Di  Mauro  of  Rome,  219. 

Dohrn,  Dr.,  218. 

Domenichino,  103. 

Domenico,  Fontana,  95.  106. 

Domenico  Gargiulo,  121,  132,  248. 

Domenico,  murder  of,  103. 

Domenico,  San  (Maggiore),  church  of, 

22,  23,  46,  49,  134. 
Donna  Regina,  House  of,  100. 
Drama,  The,  97. 
Drusilla,  268. 
Duelling,  98. 

Dumas,  Alexandre,  quoted,  73,  272. 
Durazzo,  Charles  III.,  26,  27,  28,  31. 

E. 

Elisabetta  Farnese,  137. 

Elmo,  Sant',  Hill  of,  22,  70. 

Elmo,  Sant',  Monastery  of,  24,  46,  59, 

72,  101,  107,  111,  116,  127,  142, 151. 
Elysian  Fields,  1,  276,  323. 
Enceladus,  277. 
Ennius,  9. 
Epomeo,  Monte  (Mons  Epomeus),  277, 

279. 

Eugenius  IV.,  Pope,  38. 
Eyk,  Jan  van,  247. 

F. 

Fabius,  266. 

Falcone,  Aniello,  131, 133,  248. 
Fansaga,  Cosimo,  of  Bergamo,  102,  245. 
"Fa    Presto"    (Luca   Giordano),  105, 

248,  249. 

Faraglioni,  314,  324. 
Farnese,  Elisabetta,  137. 
Fazio,  B  irtolommeo,  252. 
Federigo  di  Toledo,  134. 
Felippo  Neri,  San,  Church  of,  218,249. 
Ferdinand  I.,  22.  40,  41,  42,  43,  45,  46, 

66,253;  II.,  47,48,  49. 
Ferdinand  II.    (Bomba),  189,  190,  193, 

195,  196,  197,  198,  199,  200. 
Ferdinand  IV.  (I.),  146,  147,  148,  149, 

150,  152,  156,  158,  161,  164,  170,  173, 


INDEX. 


333 


175,  179,  180,  181,  183,  184,  185,  186, 

187,  253,  275. 
Ferdinand  of  Spain,  52,  53,  55,  56,  57; 

VI.,  145. 

Fergusson,  quoted,  245. 
Festivals,  96,    109,   131,  148.  214,  236, 

2.38,  242,  276,  280,  283,  30L 
"Fiammetta,"  43,  250. 
Filangieri,  Prince,  218. 
Filomarino,  Cardinal  Ascanio,  111,  115, 

116,  117,  120,  121,  122,  123,  124,  125. 
Firrao,  Cardinal,  169. 
Fish,  212,  213. 
Florenzano,  Signer,  223. 
Foggia,  palace  of,  22. 
"Foudaci,"  215,216,  217. 
Fontana  della  Selleria,  134. 
Fontana,  Uomenico,  95,  106. 
Forsyth,  quoted,  72,  294. 
Foundling  Hospital,  221. 
Fra  Diavolo,  156,  166,  167,  176. 
Francavilla,  Costanza  Marchesa  di,  278. 
Francesco  di  Paola,  San,  Church  of,  187, 

195,  249. 

Francesco  Grimaldi,  102. 
Francis  I.,  59,  187;  II.,  201. 
Frederick  II.,  9,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  39, 

240,  249,  250.  255,  295. 
Frederick  of  Aragon  (Prince  of  Alta- 

mura),  49,  50,  51,  53. 
Freeman,  Edward  A.,  quoted,  12. 
Freemasons,  The,  145. 
Froissart,  28. 

Frutti  di  mare,  70,  208,  213. 
Fucinus,  Lake,  8. 
Fusaro,  Lake,  274,  276. 

G. 

Gabriele  d'  Agnolo,  66. 

Gaeta,  3. 

Galeotti,  194. 

Galileo,  258,  259. 

Gallenga,  192. 

Galleria  Umberto  I.,  219. 

Gargiulo,  Domenico,  121,  132,  248. 

Garibaldi,  201,  202,  203,  223. 

Gennaro,  San.    See  under  Januarius. 

Gandino,  Antonia,  77. 

Genuino,  Giulio,  112,  121. 

Ghibellines,  15,  18,  21,  24. 

Giacomo  degli  Spagnuoli,  Sun,  church 

of,  67. 
Giambattista  della  Porta,  42. 


Giannone,  Pietro,  167. 

Giansilla,  Niccolo  di,  15. 

Gibbon,  Edward,  quoted,  6. 

Gibson,  William,  quoted,  328. 

Gioberti,  194. 

Giordano    Bruno,    of    Nola,    167,    257, 

258. 
Giordano,  Luca  ("  Fa  Presto  "),  105,  248, 

249. 

Giotto,  24,  25,  28. 
Giovanni  a  Carbonara,  San,  church  of, 

26,  32,  45,  246. 
Giovanni  d'  Altamura,  50. 
Giovanni  da  Nola,  40,  51,  66,  67,  70,  73, 

77,  134,  24G. 

Girolamo  Santa  Croce,  79,  247. 
Giron,  Don  Pedro,  85,  86,  87,  88,  89,  96, 

102,  104. 

Giuliano  da  Maiano,  40,  45,  246. 
Giulio  Genuino,  112,  121. 
Gladstone,  William,  198. 
Goethe,  3,  219,  284. 
Gonsalvo  da  Cordova,  40,  48,  50,  52,  53, 

54,  55,  56,  57,  60. 
Gradoni,  72. 

Graham,  Sir  James,  192,  194. 
Granada,  Treat}-  of,  52,  58. 
Graviua  Palace,  66. 
Green  Grotto,  325. 
Gregorovius,  Ferdinand,  297,  306,  315, 

318,  323,  327. 
Gregory  VII.,  Pope,  294;  X.,  Pope,  20; 

XL,  27. 

Grenier,  General,  171. 
Grimaldi,  Francesco,  of  Oppido,  102. 
Guardato,  Masuccio,  256. 
Guelfs,  24. 

Guglielmo  of  Naples,  40. 
Guidiccioni,  quoted,  107. 
Guido  Manzoni,  51. 
Guido  Reni,  103. 
Gtiiscard,  Robert.  8. 
Guise,  Duke  of,  82,  107,  127,  128, 130. 
Gyraldus,  Lilius,  253. 

H. 

Hadrian,  271. 

Hamilton,  Lady,  159, 160. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William,  152,  153,  160. 

Hannibal,  3,  5,  266. 

Remans,  Felicia,  quoted,  6,  19. 

Henry  VI.,  11. 

Ilerculaneum,  144,  228,  282. 


334 


INDEX. 


Hercules,  3,  5,  265,  269,  283. 

Hermitage  (Capri),  322. 

Hohenstaufen,  House  of,  8,  18. 

Homer,  269. 

Honorius,  Pope,  11. 

Horace,  2,  9,  269. 

Horsemanship,  97. 

Horse-racing,  235. 

Hospital  for  Incurables,  222. 

Hospital,  Lima,  222. 

Hospitallers  of  St.  John,  Order  of,  293. 

Humbert  I.,  204,  216. 

I. 

Immacolata,  bridge  of  the,  141. 

Immacolatella,  The,  141. 

Inarime  (Ischia),  4,  279. 

Incoronata,  church  of  the,  28. 

Industries,  101,  224,  276,  280,  283,  293, 
301. 

Innocent  III.,  Pope,  12;  IV.,  15; 
VIII.,  43. 

Inquisition,  62,  63,  65,  74,  108,  145,  252. 

Institute,  Victor  Emmanuel  Interna- 
tional, 223. 

Instituto  Casanova,  223. 

Intronati,  Academy  of  the,  62. 

Isabella  del  Balzo/53,  55. 

Isabella  of  Lorraine,  36,  169. 

Isaia  da  Pisa,  40. 

Ischia,  23,  30,  41,  47,  49,  53,  62,  205,  264, 
265,  274,  276,  277,  279,  323. 

J. 

Jacques  de  Bourbon,  32. 

Jamiarius,  St.,  48,  49,  102,  141,  155, 
240,  271;  church  of,  21;  miracle  of, 
197,  239,  240,  241;  order  of,  139;  rel- 
ics of,  48,  238. 

Jean  Paul,  297. 

Jesuits,  The,  147,  186,  189. 

Jettatura,  226. 

Jews,  The,  145. 

Joachim,  King  Olnrat).  169,  170,  171, 
172,  173,  174.  176,  283. 

Joanna  I.,  25,  26,  28,  118,  169;  II.,  32, 
33,  34,  169,  246. 

Joanna  of  Castile,  55,  57. 

John  XXIII.,  Pope,  30,  31. 

John  of  Bohemia,  24. 

John,  Don,  of  Austria,  127.  128. 

John,  Duke  of  Calabria,  40,  41. 


John  of  Procida,  23,  276. 
Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel,  quoted,  7. 
Joseph  of  Austria,  149;  Bonaparte,  164, 

165,  166,  167,  168,  169. 
Julius  II.,  Pope,  58. 
Junta  of   Poisons,   140;    of  State,  151, 

159,  163,  181. 

Justinian,  Pandects  of,  293. 
Juvenal,  256,  276. 

K. 

Kopisch,  August,  quoted,  326. 

L. 

Ladislaus,  King,  29,  30,  31,  32, 169,  246, 
275. 

Lancia,  Count  Giordano,  17. 

Lanfranco,  103. 

Largo  della  Vittoria,  69,  70. 

Largo  di  Castello,  71. 

La  Sila,  forests  of,  3. 

La  Touche,  Admiral,  150. 

Lautrec,  Marshal,  58,  59. 

Laybach,  Congress  of,  183,  184. 

Lazzaroni,  73,  154,  158,  198,  249. 

Lemos,  Count  of,  93,  106. 

Leo  X.,  Pope,  58. 

Lippomano  of  Venice,  quoted,  81. 

Literature,  10,  12,  25,  82,  130,  131,  167, 
168,  194,  250,  253,  254,  255,  256,  257, 
258,  259. 

Livy,  251. 

Lo  Capo,  318,  319. 

Lorenzo,  San,  church  of,  21,  42,  43,  65, 
112,  116. 

Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  251. 

Loria,  Admiral  Roger  de,  18,  20. 

Los  Palacios,  55. 

Letter}-,  233,  234. 

Louis  of  Anjou,  27,  28;  II.,  29,  30;  III., 
33,  34;  of  Bavaria,  24;  XI.  of 
France,  41 ;  XII.  of  France,  52,  53 ; 
XIV.,  of  France,  133,  138;  of  Hun- 
gary, 27,  29;  of  Taranto,  26,  28,  118. 

Lowe,  Colonel  (Sir  Hudson),  165,  170, 
315. 

Loyola,  Ignatius,  189. 

Luca  Giordano,  105,  248,  249. 

Lucania,  3. 

Lucera,  12,  15,  16,  18,  75. 

Lucrine,  Lake,  269. 

Lucullus,  261,  263,  264. 


INDEX. 


335 


Luigi  Vanvitelli,  34,  143,  245. 
Luigia  Sanfelice,  157. 
Luke,  St.,  267,  268,  269. 
Lupatelli,  194. 
Lyons,  Treaty  of,  55. 

M. 

Macdonald,  General,  156. 

Machiavelli,  260. 

Maddaloni,  Duke  of,  113,  114,  115,  116, 

117,  123,  124,  131,  255. 
Maiano,  Giuliano  da,  40,  45,  246. 
Maida,  Battle  of,  166. 
Makau,  151. 
Manduria,  2. 

Manfred,  13,  14,  15,  16,  17,  250. 
Manfredonia,  16. 
Mangone,  Rosario,  311,  315. 
Manufactures,  101. 
Manzoni,  204. 

Manzoni,  Guido  (Modanino),  51. 
Margaret  of  Savoy,  33. 
Maria  del  Carmine,  church  of,  19,  124; 

del  Parto,  79,  255 ;  del  Soccorso,  319. 
Maria  Josephine,  death  of,  148. 
Maria  Theresa,  148. 
Marie  Antoinette,  150. 
Marina  Grande,  302,  312. 
Marina,  Piccola,  314,  324. 
Marinella,  The,  71,  141,  236. 
Marini,  Giovan  Battista,  131. 
Mario,  Mrs.,  223. 
Martial,  275,  288,  296. 
Martin  IV.,  Pope,  20;  V.,  31,  33. 
Martino,  Pietro  di,  40. 
Martino,  San,  church  of,  102,  314. 
Mary  of  Hungary,  31 ;  Tudor,  84. 
Masaniello,  71,85,108,109,110,112, 114, 

115,  116,  119,  120, 121,  122,  123,  124, 

125,  126,  133. 

Massimo  Stanzioni,  103,  133,  248. 
Massys,  Quentin,  35. 
Masuccio  I.,  76;  II.,  25,  42,  76. 
Masuccio  Guardato,  256. 
Matinus,  Mons,  2. 
Matromania,  Grotto  of,  320. 
Matteo,  San,  Church  of,  294. 
Mattia  Preti,  105,  106,  248. 
Mauro,  di,  of  Rome,  219. 
Maximilian,  19;  King  of  the  Romans, 

48. 

Mazzini,  Joseph,  190,  191,  192,  202. 
Medici,  Lorenzo  de',  251 ;  Pietro  de',  44. 


Medina,  Duke  of,  94;  Duchess  of,  100. 

Medina,  Fountain,  134. 

Medrano,  141. 

Melfi,  castle  of,  75. 

Menzini,  Benedetto,  quoted,  247. 

Mergellina,  the,  69,  98,  141,  218,  263. 

Merliano  da  Nola,  Giovanni,  40,  51,  66, 

67,  70,  73,  77,  134,  246. 
Metternich,  Prince,  179,  182,  183,  192. 
Micco  Spadaro  (Spadone),  121,  132,  248. 
Michael  Angelo,  247. 
Michael  Angelo  da  Caravaggio,  104, 105. 
Michele  de  Santis,  118. 
Michelozzo,  246. 
Milan,  Duke  of,  35,  38,  41,  48. 
Milton,  John,  254. 
Miranda,  Count  of,  106. 
Misenum,  Cape,  3,  275. 
Modanino,  51. 

Molo  (The  Mole),  22,  46,  56, 83, 134, 141. 
Moncada,  Don  Ugo  de,  59. 
Monte  Barbara,  hill  of,  273. 
Monte   Cassino,   bronze  doors  of,  246; 

convent  of,  292. 
Monte  Epomeo,  277. 
Monteforte  trial,  the,  186. 
Montemar,  Count,  138,  139. 
Monte  Nuovo,  74,  75,  272. 
Monte  Oliveto,  church  of,  50,  61,  197, 

254. 
Monterey,     Count    of,    94,    97,    107; 

Countess  of,  99. 
Monte  Sant'  Angelo,  205,  289. 
Monte  Solaro,  321,  322,  323,  324. 
Monte  Vergine,  26,  237,  240. 
Monte  Vico,  280. 
Montorsoli,  79. 
Montpensier,  Count  of,  48. 
Moore,  Thomas,  quoted,  287. 
Morals,  99,  100. 
Munthe,  Dr.  Axel,  215. 
Murat,  Joachim,  169,  170,  171,  172,  173, 

283. 

Mureto,  castle  of,  27. 
Muro,  castle  of,  27. 
Museo  (Borbonico)  Nazionale,   28,   35, 

45,  46,  75,  83,  84,  131,  142,   187,   220, 

224,  283. 

N. 

Naples,  besieged  by  Belisarius,  5; 
Charles  I.  of  Anjou  established  as 
king,  18;  monuments  of  Charles  I. 


336 


INDEX. 


and  II.,  21;  gladiatorial  combats  at, 
26;  war  with  Louis  of  Hungary,  26; 
besieged  by  Ladislaus,  31;  entrance 
of  Louis  of  Anjou,  30;  occupied  by 
King  Rene",  37;  besieged  by  Alfonso 
of  Aragon,  38 ;  victory  of  Alfonso,  39 ; 
claimed  by  Charles  VIII.  of  France, 
44;  welcomes  Charles  VIII.,  47; 
under  Ferdinand  II.,  48;  four  sov- 
ereigns, 49;  under  Louis  XII.  of 
France,  53;  in  possession  of  Spain, 
53;  reception  of  Ferdinand,  55; 
blockaded  by  the  army  of  Francis  I., 
59;  governed  by  Don  Pedro  de  To- 
ledo, 61,  62;  revolts  against  Toledo, 
64;  disastrous  results,  65;  changes  in 
eastern  Naples,  71;  improvements  of 
Don  Toledo,  73;  characteristic  archi- 
tecture, 75;  famous  artists,  76-79; 
religious  orders,  82;  under  Philip  II., 
80-84;  under  the  Duke  of  Ossuna, 
85-89;  war  with  Venice,  87,  88; 
wretchedness  under  Philip  IV.,  89, 
90;  trouble  with  bandits,  90,  91;  de- 
moralization, 91-100;  ceremonial  of 
viceroys,  92;  population,  100;  advan- 
tageous situation,  101 ;  luxury  and  art, 
102;  painters,  103-105 ;  important  pub- 
lic works,  107;  rebellion  of  Masaniello 
under  Duke  of  Arcos,  108-125 ;  restored 
tranquillity  under  the  Count  of  Onate, 
129;  evil  effects  of  Spanish  rule,  134; 
under  German  rule,  136;  demoraliza- 
tion, 137;  entrance  of  Carlo  Borbone, 
138,  139 ;  improvement  under  Carlo 
Borbone,  140;  theatre  of  San  Carlo, 
141,  142;  palace  of  Caserta,  142; 
water  supply,  144;  peaceful  condi- 
tions, 145;  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits, 
147;  entrance  of  Ferdinand  IV.,  148; 
good  accomplished  by  Tanucci,  149; 
rule  of  Queen  Caroline,  149;  visited 
by  Admiral  La  Touche,  150;  terror- 
ism, 151;  desertion  of  the  king,  153; 
occupied  by  the  French.  154,  155; 
Parthenopean  Republic,  156;  Baker 
conspiracy,  157;  atrocities  under  the 
Bourbons,  158 ;  perfidy  of  Admiral 
Nelson,  160;  Ferdinand's  revenge, 
161;  flight  of  Ferdinand,  163;  entry 
of  French  fleet,  163;  severities  of 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  165;  attempts  of 
the  Bourbons  foiled,  166;  reforms, 


167 ;  fate  of  Neapolitan  queens,  168, 
169;  entrance  of  Murat,  169;  capture 
of  Capri,  170;  flight  of  Murat,  173; 
restoration  of  Ferdinand,  174;  pesti- 
lence and  persecutions,  175 ;  customs 
of  the  Carbonari,  177;  Constitution 
adopted,  180;  Ferdinand's  oath,  181; 
more  orderly  conditions,  182;  Aus- 
trian occupation  of  Naples,  183;  reign 
of  terror,  184,  185;  "  Monteforte " 
trial,  186;  death  of  Ferdinand,  187; 
character  of  Ferdinand  II.,  190;  so- 
ciety of  Young  Italy,  191;  character 
of  Mazzini,  192;  Ferdinand's  moral- 
ity, 193;  plot  of  the  Bandiera  re- 
vealed, 194;  Constitution  of  1848, 
195;  elections,  196;  massacre  of  the 
people,  197,  198;  "the  negation  of 
God,"  199;  new  election,  199;  Bom- 
ba's  vengeance,  199 ;  entrance  of  Gari- 
baldi, 201;  Garibaldi  Dictator,  202; 
entrance  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  203; 
beauty  of  Naples,  205;  characteristics, 
206 :  cheap  foods,  208;  milk  and  water 
sellers,  209;  trade-quarters,  210; 
peasant  jewelry,  211;  marketing, 
212;  fisheries,  212,  213;  superstitions, 
213;  poverty,  214;  efforts  at  improve- 
ment, 216  ;  beautiful  drives,  218;  Villa 
Nazionale.  218;  drainage,  219;  char- 
itable institutions,  220;  Foundling 
Hospital,  221;  Hospital  for  Incura- 
bles, 222;  schools,  222,  223;  indus- 
tries, 224;  the  jettaturct,  226 ;  amulets, 
226-229;  a  Lenten  custom,  229;  ges- 
tures, 229,  230;  the  tarantella,  231; 
gambling,  232,  233;  lottery,  234; 
horse-racing,  235;  theatricals,  235, 
236;  festivals,  237,  238;  liquefaction 
of  the  blood  of  San  Gennaro,  240,  241; 
saint  worship,  242;  Neapolitan  ar- 
chitects, 244,  245;  sculptors,  246; 
painters,  247,  248;  Naturalist!,  248; 
literature,  250;  reign  of  Alfonso  I., 
251 ;  Jovianus  Pontanus  and  his  writ- 
ings, 253,  254;  Sannazzaro,  255; 
Masuccio's  "  Novelle,"  257;  songs  of 
the  people,  257;  Calabrian  philoso- 
phers: Campanella,  Bruno,  Telesio, 
257,  258,  259;  excursions  about  Na- 
ples, 261. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  151, 152,  162,  164, 
167,  168,  169,  311. 


INDEX. 


337 


Naturalisti,  248. 

Nelson,   Admiral,   152,    153,   154,    158, 

159,  160. 

Nero,  270,  271,  275. 
Nesis,  34. 
Nicholas  III.,  Pope,  20 ;  V.,  Pope,  251, 

252. 

Nicolo  of  Foggia,  76. 
Nicolo,  San,  church  of,  244. 
Nisida,  34,  68, 107,  264,  324. 
Nocera,  12,  18,  21,  29,  324. 
Nocera,  Duke  of,  93. 
Noja,  Duke  of,  98. 
Nolana,  Gate  of,  210. 
Normans,    masters    of    the    peninsula, 

8,  9. 

Novara,  battle  of,  199,  200. 
Novellino,  the,  256. 
Nunziata,  church  of,  35,  48,  102,  221. 

o. 

Odoacer,  34. 

Olivares,  Count  of,  21. 

Olivarez,  70,  83,  89. 

Onate,   Count  of,   128,   129,  130,  131, 

133,  134. 

Orange,  Philibert,  Prince  of,  59,  255. 
Orcagna,  Andrea,  250. 
Orsini  Palace,  66. 
Orsini,  Raimondello,  29. 
Ossuna,  Duke  of,  85,  86,  87,  88,  89,  96, 

102,  104. 

Otto  of  Brunswick,  27. 
Ovid,  9. 

P. 

Paduli  (marshes),  46. 

Paestum,  295,  319. 

Painters,  103,  104,  105,  131,  132,  133. 

Palace,  Royal  (Palazzo  Reale),  95,  96, 

97,  106,  ill,  134,  144. 
Palazzo  Capo-di-monte,  171. 
Palazzo  Cuomo,  218. 
Palazzo  di  Trajetto,  93. 
Palazzo  Gravina,  198. 
Palazzo  Sanseverino,  66. 
Palermo,  cathedral  of,  15. 
Palinurus,  4;  headland  of,  3. 
Paris,  Matthew,  12. 
Parliament,    Constitutional,    182,    196, 

199. 

Parthenope,  1,  205,  228,  281. 
Parthenopean  Republic,  156,  315. 


Paul,  Jean,  297. 

Paul  IV.,  Pope,  82. 

Paul,  St.,  263,  267,  268,  269,  270,  325. 

Pedro  Antonio  of  Aragon,  134. 

Pedro  de  Toledo,   Don,  40,  59,  60,  61, 

62,  63,  64,  65,  66,  67,  72,  73,  74,  267. 
Pepe,  General,  180, 181. 
Perkins,  C.  C.,  quoted,  78.  246. 
Pescara,  Marquis  of,  46,  64,  277. 
Peter  of  Aragon,  20. 
Petrarch,  25,  43,  250,  262,  295. 
Pezzo  di  Sangue,  5. 
Philip  the  Good,  35 ;  the  Hardy,  23. 
Philip  II.,  79,  80,  81,  83,  84;  III.,  85, 

87,  89,  106,   107;    IV.,  89;    V.,  137, 

138,  146;  VI.,  23. 
Phlegrsean  Plain,  1,  266. 
Piazza  degli  Orefici,  210. 
Piazza  del  Cerriglio,  118. 
Piazza  del  Mercato,  18,  19,  21. 
Piazza  del  Plebiscite,  71, 144,  187. 
Piazza  Medina,  186. 
Piazza  Umberto,  69. 
Piccinino,  41. 
Piccola  Marina,  314,  324. 
Piedigrotta,  festival  of,  238. 
Pietro  da  Morone,  23. 
Pietro  di  Martino,  40. 
Pietro  Martire,  church  of,  22. 
Piscatorial  Eclogues,  Sannazzaro's,  255. 
Pius  II.,  Pope,  41;  IX.,  195,  199,  294. 
Pizzo,  174. 

Pizzofalcone,  22,  70,  107,  111,  119. 
Pliny,  2,  22,  32,  265,  271. 
Poerio,  Carlo  (Charles),  196,  199. 
Poggi,  quoted,  181. 
Poggio  Reale,  106, 120. 
Pollio,  Vedius,  264. 
Pompeii,  144,  146,  208,  228,  237,  282, 

284,  285,  286,  287. 
Pompey,  275. 
Pomponazzi,  259. 
Pontanus,  Jovianus,  253,  254,  275. 
Ponte  di  Chiaja,  70,  107. 
Ponza,  165,  273,  320,  323. 
Porcello,  Giovannantonio,  252. 
Porta  Capuana,  45,  66,  107,   138,  183, 

210. 

Porta,  Giambattista  della,  42. 
Porta  Nolana,  210. 
Portella,  139,  148. 
Portici,  141,  144,  282. 
Porticus  Antonianus,  253. 


22 


338 


INDEX. 


Porto  Mercantile  (Grande),  22. 

Porto  Militare,  188. 

Poseidonia,  295. 

Posilipo,  74,  91,  92,  03,  98, 144,  261,  263, 

324. 
Pozzuoli,  62,  63,  64, 67,  74, 110, 143, 144, 

264,  266,  270,  271,  323. 
Prescott,  William  H.,  quoted,  54,  55, 

57. 

Preti,  Mattia,  105, 106,  248. 
Principe  di  Napoli,  220. 
Procida,  264,  276,  323,  John  of,  23,  276. 
Proserpine,  Temple  of,  3. 
Punta  di  Campanella,  205,  319. 
Pyrrhus,  3. 
Pythagoras,  9. 

Q. 

Quans,  Bishop  of,  302. 
Quintin  Massys,  35. 
Quissisana,  Villa,  22,  289. 

R. 

Ravaschiera,  Duchess,  222. 

Ravello,  76 ;  bronze  doors  of,  246. 

Reclusorio  (Poorhouse),  72. 

Reissinger,  Sixtus,  45. 

Renan,  quoted,  9. 

Rend  of  Anjou,  34,  35,  36,  37,  38,  39, 40, 

41,  42. 

Resina,  282,  283. 

Restituta,  Santa,  cathedral  of,  280. 
Reumont,  De,  52,  60,  69,  71,  77,  88,  93, 

119,  128. 

Ribera,  103,  104, 131. 
Ribera,  Maria  Rosa,  104,  105. 
Richard  II.  of  England,  29. 
Richelieu,  Cardinal,  89,  258. 
Rione,  Arenaccia  Orientale,  219. 
Rione,  Vomerone  Arenella,  219. 
Rione  Vasto,  219. 
Riviera  di  Chiaja,  68. 
Riviera,  The,  294. 
Robert  Guiscard,  8. 
Robert  of  Taranto,  26. 
Robert  the  Wise,  24,  25,  250,  262,  263. 
Rocca  Secca,  battle  of,  30,  31. 
Rocciola,  Punta  di,  276. 
Rock  of  Roses,  17. 
Roger  II.,  Count  of  Sicily,  8,  11,  58, 

311:  of  Loria,  Admiral,  18,20. 
Rogers,  Samuel,  quoted,  317. 


Rosa,  Salvator,  71,  105,  131,  132,  133, 

248,  292. 

Rosario  Mangone,  311,  315. 
Rosellino,  246. 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  20. 
Ruffo,  Cardinal,  156,  158,  159. 
Rufolo  Palace,  22. 

S. 

Sabbatini,  79,  248. 

Salerno,   12,  2«4;  Prince  of,  160.   181; 

bronze  doors  of,  246. 
Saliceti,  166,  167, 198. 
Salimbene,  250. 
Sallust,  9. 

Salto  di  Tiberio,  317. 
Saluzzo,  Marquis  of,  59. 
Salvator  Rosa,  71,   105,  131,  132,  133, 

248,  292. 

Sambuca,  Marquis  della,  149. 
San  Antonio,  291. 
San  Antonio,  della  Zecca,  church  of,  21; 

a  Tarsia,  convent  of,  223. 
San  Domenico  Maggiore,  church  of,  22, 

23,  46,  49,  134. 

Sanfelice,  Ferdinando,  245;  Luigia,  157. 
San  Filippo  Neri.  church  of,  218,  249. 
San  Francesco  di  Paola,  church  of,  187, 

195. 

San  Gennaro,  church  of,  21,  102. 
San  Germano,  31. 
San  Giacomo  degli  Spagnuoli,  church 

of,  67. 

San  Giovanni  a  Carbonara,  26,  32,  246. 
San  Leucio,  government  of,  150. 
San  Lorenzo,  church  of,  21,  42,  65,  112, 

116. 
San  Martino,  castle  of,  45;  church  of, 

102,  314 ;  heights  of,  59. 
San  Matteo,  church  of,  294. 
San  Michele,  315. 
Sannazzaro,  79,  247,  254,  255,  256,  261, 

275. 

San  Nicolo  at  Bari,  church  of,  244. 
San  Pietro  Martire,  church  of,  221. 
Sanseverini  of  Salerno,  59. 
San  Severino,  church  of,  77. 
San  Severino,  Ugo,  78;  Geronimo,  78. 
Sanseverino,  Palazzo,  66. 
Santa    Anna    dei    Lombardi,     church 

of,  51. 
Santa  Chiara,  church  of,  24,  25,  77. 


INDEX. 


339 


Santa  Croce,  Girolamo,  79,  247. 

Santa  Maria  del  Carmine,  church  of,  19. 

Santa  Maria  della  Stella,  convent  of, 

119. 
Santa  Maria  del  Parto,  church  of,  79, 

255. 

Santa  Maria  del  Soccorso,  church  of,  319. 
Santa   Maria  La  Nuova,  Convent  of, 

118. 

Santa  Martha,  Congregation  of,  37. 
Santa  Restituta,  cathedral  of,  280. 
San  Trinita,  abbey  of,  244. 
Sarno,  battle  of,  40. 
Scafati,  237. 

Schwab,  Julia  Salis,  223. 
Sebeto,  The,  142. 
Sejanus,  Grotto  of,  264. 
Seminara,  battle  of,  50. 
Seneca,  268. 

Serino  water,  209,  216,  221. 
Serapis,  Temple  of,  271. 
Sersale,  Vigna,  291. 
Sforza,  Attendolo,  30, 31,  33;  Francesco, 

38;  Ludovico,  44. 
Shakspeare,  quoted,  133. 
Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe,  quoted,  135. 
Sibilla",  Queen,  168,  292. 
Sibylla  (Comnena).  17,  295. 
Sicilian  Vespers,  20,  23,  276. 
Sidney,  Sir  Philip,  256. 
Sigismund,  King  of  the  Romans,  31. 
Sila,  La,  forests  of,  3. 
Silius  Italicus,  261,  262. 
Silk  manufacture,  45, 101,  225. 
Simone,  Catherine  de,  188. 
Smith,  William  Sidney,  166. 
Society  of  Young  Italy,  191. 
Solario  Antonio,  35,  79,  248. 
Solaro.  Monte,  321,  322,  323,  324. 
Solfatara,  the,  265,  266,  323. 
Sorrento,  205,  289,  290,  298. 
Spagnoletto,  132. 
Spartacus,  5. 
Spinoza,  258. 

Spirito  Santo,  church  of,  169,  182. 
Stael,  Madame  de,  288. 
Stamer,  quoted,  230,  231. 
SUinzioni,  Massimo,  103,  133,  248. 
Statius.  262.  265,  266,  317. 
Story,  W.  W.,  quoted,  267. 
Strabo,  1,  3,  4. 
Streets  — 

Strada  del  Castello,  39,  208. 


Strada  del  Gigante,  70. 

Strada  di  Chiaja,  83. 

Strada  (di;  Foria,  45,  218,  236. 

Strada  Medina,  94. 

Strada  Mergellina,  141. 

Strada  Monte  di  Dio,  107. 

Strada  Nuova  di  Capodimonte,  71. 

Strada  Ponte  di  Chiaja,  107. 

Strada  San  Carlo,  219. 

Strada  Santa  Lucia,  70,  161,  207. 

Strada  S.  Teresa  degli  Scalzi,  71. 

Strada  Toledo,  71,  72,  168,  185, 197, 
207,  235,  236. 

Strade  di  Caccia,  142. 

See  under  Corso,  Via. 
Suetonius,  quoted,  272,  309,  317. 
Sulla,  266,  275. 
Sybaris,  founding  of,  7. 
Symonds,  J.  A.,  250,  253,  254,  257,  259, 

263. 
Syracuse,  Count  of,  69,  70. 

T. 

Tacitus,  299. 

Tagliacozzo,  battle  of,  18. 

Taimcci,  Bernardo,  138,  139,  147,  148, 

149. 

Tarantella,  230,  237. 
Tarquinius  Superbus,  273. 
Tasso,  Torquato,  264,  278,  291. 
Taxes,  37,  56,  63,  80,  108,  110,  130, 156, 

234. 

Teatro  di  San  Bartolommeo,  134. 
Teatro  di  San  Carlo,  134,  141,  175. 
Teduccio,  San  Giovanni  a,  282. 
Telesio  of  Cosenza,  257,  258,  259. 
Teresa  of  Anacapri,  303,  304. 
Terracina,  4,  63. 
Terra  di  Lavoro,  52. 
Tesauro.  47. 

Tesoro,  Capella  del,  102. 
Thayer,  W.  R.,  quoted,  177,  187,  191. 
Three  Brothers,  77. 
Tiberius,  Emperor,  268,  275,  309,   310, 

311,  318,  319,  323,  326. 
Titian,  83. 

Toledo,  Don  Federigo  de,  134. 
Toledo,  Don  Pedro  de,  40,  59,  60,  61,  62, 

63,  64,  65,  66,  67,  261,  267. 
Toledo,  the,  see  Strada  Toledo. 
Torlonia,  Prince,  8. 
Torre  dell'  Annunzinta,  284,  289. 
Torre  del  Greco,  285,  299,  324. 


340 


INDEX. 


Tragara,  Valley  of,  308,  314,  315. 

Trinita  della  Cava,  convent  of,  292. 

Troja,  battle  of,  41. 

Trollope,  T.  Adolphus,  278. 

Trovatori,  73. 

Tuoro  Grande,  314,  315,  316,  320. 

Typhceus,  4,  277. 

u. 

Ulysses,  2,  4. 

University  of    Naples,   9,   12,   37,   56, 

144. 
Urban  IV.,  Pope,  16;  VI.,  Pope,  27,  29; 

VIII.,  Pope,  258. 
Usochi,  87. 

V. 

Vaccaro,  Andrea,  132,  248. 

Valery,  143. 

Valla,  Lorenzo,  251,  252. 

Vanini,  258. 

Vanvitelli,  Luigi,  34,  143,  245. 

Varelli,  220. 

Vasari,  25,  40. 

Vasto,  Marchesa  del,  279. 

Vaudemont,  Count  of,  58. 

Vedius  Pollio,  264. 

Venice,  87,  88. 

Vergellus,  the,  5. 

Vesuvius,  3,  141,  156,  205,  225,  242,  264, 

265,  268,  284,  285,  287,  288,  298,  320, 

324. 

Via  Carracciolo,  69,  207,  217,  218. 
Via  dei  Colterari,  210. 
Via  del  Duomo,  218. 
Via  Mezzo-cannone,  234. 
Via  Roma  gia  Toledo,  71. 
Via  Tasso,  218. 
Vico  Equense,  22,  205. 
Victor  Emmanuel,  King,  200,  201,  202, 

203,  204. 


Vigna  Sersale,  291. 

Villa  del  Popolo,  210. 

Villafranca,    Marquis    of,   Federigo  de 

Toledo,  134.     See  Toledo. 
Villa  Jovis,  315,  316. 
Villa  Mergellina,  255. 
Villa  Nazionale,  69,  218,  236. 
Villari,  Professore  Pasquale,  214,  215. 
Vino  tiberiano,  301,  310. 
Violante  of  Anjou,  58. 
Virgil,  8,  25,  32,  261,  262,  270,  276,  299; 

quoted,  2,  5,  273. 
Visconti,  Valentina,  52. 
Vitruvius,  9. 

Vittoria  Colonna,  46,  277,  278,  279. 
Vittoria,  Largo  della,  69,  70. 
Vivara,  island  of,  323. 
Viviano,  Codagora,  132,  248. 
Voltaire,  263. 
Volturno,  the,  142. 
Vomero,  the,  218. 

w. 

Walloons,  88. 
Walter  of  Brienne,  24. 
Werner  the  mercenary,  26. 
Western  Empire,  Fall  of,  8. 
William  I.,  76,  259. 
William  II.  (of  Palermo),  249. 

Y. 

Young  Italy,  society  of,  191. 
Yuste,  monastery  of,  79. 

Z. 

Zaleucus,  9. 
Zampagnari,  238. 
Zeuxis,  3. 
Zingaro,  Lo,  35,  79,  248. 


